The First World War dealt a serious blow to many countries - the losses were very high, the restoration of the population proceeded slowly, and strained relations remained between yesterday's enemies. Particularly sharp were the contradictions between the four leading countries of the world - France, the USA, England and Japan. The reason for these contradictions was the division and strength of the navy.
Relations between these countries were heating up more and more, everyone clearly felt that in a few more years a new war would become inevitable. Then it was decided to convene a conference, at which all contradictions will be discussed and the adversary countries will be able to come to a mutually beneficial solution, which will prevent a conflict.
The United States was chosen as the venue, and the 1921 Washington Conference was convened in their capital.
It should be noted the following: the Washington conference was convened precisely at the initiative of the United States - they hoped to achieve the conclusion of agreements favorable to themselves. Officially, the main goal of the conference was to stop the movement of the peoples of the Soviet Union and dependent countries. Remarkably, the government of the Soviet Union was not invited to the conference, and when the delegation was sent to Washington, it was denied admission to the conference.
The Washington Conference was held from November 1921 to February 1922, and its decisions were very important for the whole world. Three treaties were especially significant: the "treaty of four", "the treaty of nine" and "the treaty of five".
The Washington Conference signed the "Pact of Four" on December 13, 21st. This treaty, as the name implies, involved four powers: the United States, France, England and Japan. The essence of this treaty is the agreement of all four countries to jointly protect the agreed territorial rights to the Pacific Ocean. In addition, the "treaty of four" stipulated the breakdown of the Anglo-Japanese alliance, which had lasted since 1902. This alliance was broken due to tangible pressure from the United States, since the alliance of England and Japan was directed against some of the plans of the United States.
The "Treaty of Five" was adopted by the Washington Conference just before its conclusion, in 1922. This treaty also has a second name - the Washington Maritime Treaty. The following powers took part in it: France, USA, Japan, Great Britain and Italy. This treaty stipulated the need to limit the naval armed forces of all countries participating in it. According to the naval treaty, the United States received the advantage in terms of the forces of the navy.
In addition to the United States, Japan and the United Kingdom have secured some of the benefits through this treaty. Thus, Great Britain and the USA gave Japan obligations not to build bases in the Pacific Ocean east of 110 meridian east longitude. And Great Britain retained its de facto advantage due to the fact that the tonnage of the navy was not limited.
The Washington Conference adopted the "Treaty of Nine" simultaneously with the "Treaty of Five." The following countries participated in this agreement: France, Belgium, USA, Great Britain, Japan, Netherlands, Italy, Portugal and China. According to this agreement, all countries participating in it received equal opportunities, and China became a country that could be used by everyone (and not just Japan, as previously conceived). Japan also pledged to refuse to present "Twenty-One Demands" to China.
Only here the rights of China were somewhat infringed: not all Japanese troops were withdrawn from it, and a special customs tariff was imposed on China itself, strengthening its (China's) inequality.
The American government made plans to seize the best positions on the Chinese Eastern Railway, but, thanks to the resistance of China, infringed in its rights and the offended Soviet Union, these plans could not be realized.
4 Power Treaty(USA, Great Britain, France and Japan) December 13, 1921 - on the joint protection of territorial "rights" in the Pacific Ocean. Purpose: to unite forces against the national liberation movement of the peoples of the Pacific Ocean and the Far East. The treaty also provided (under pressure from the Americans) the liquidation of the Anglo-Japanese alliance (1902), directed at that time against the plans of the United States. Some British dominions (primarily Canada), who feared Japan's strengthening at the expense of China and other countries of the Far East, also spoke out against the Anglo-Japanese alliance.
5 Power Treaty- February 6, 1922 (USA, Great Britain, Japan, France and Italy) on the limitation of naval weapons, which changed their ratio in favor of the USA. According to it, Great Britain is forced to abandon its unconditional predominance at sea. The agreement established a certain proportion of the maximum tonnage of the linear fleet of its participants: USA - 5, UK-5, Japan-3,
France 1.75, Italy 1.75... The total tonnage of battleships was not to exceed: for the USA and Great Britain 525 thousand tons each, for Japan 315 thousand tons, for Italy and France 175 thousand tons each.
Aircraft carrier tonnage: 135 thousand tons for the USA and Great Britain, 81 thousand tons for Japan and 60 thousand tons each for Italy and France... However, the total tonnage of the navies of the powers was not limited, so that the actual superiority of the British fleet remained. Japan secured a strategic advantage by securing a commitment from the American and British governments not to build new bases in the Pacific Islands east of the 110th meridian east longitude (except for islands off the coast of the United States, Canada, Alaska, the Panama Canal zone, Australia, New Zealand, and Hawaii).
9 Power Treaty- February 6, 1922. (USA, UK, France, Japan, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, Portugal and China)
The treaty provided these states with "equal opportunities" in China in the field of trade and business and obliged them not to resort to using the internal situation in China to obtain privileges that infringe upon the rights and interests of other parties to the treaty. China was viewed as a common target of exploitation. The treaty was directed against Japan's claims to monopoly dominance in China. The agreement was in line with the American "open door" policy; the United States hoped to oust its competitors from China.
Earlier, on February 4, 1922, the Washington Agreement was signed - a Sino-Japanese agreement on the evacuation of Japanese troops from the Chinese province of Shandong, as well as on the return to China of the Qingdao-Jinan railway and Jiaozhou territory. In addition, the Japanese government will not demand that the Chinese fulfill the fifth group of Japan's “Twenty-One Demands” (on the appointment of Japanese advisers to the Chinese government, etc.). However, Japan rejected China's demand for the withdrawal of Japanese troops from southern Manchuria. Simultaneously with the Treaty of Nine Powers, on February 6, 1922, the Treaty on the Chinese Customs Tariff was signed, which consolidated China's customs inequality.
The decisions reached at the conference completed the redistribution of colonial possessions and spheres of influence of the imperialist states in the Pacific Ocean and the Far East that took place after World War I. American imperialism has made a number of important concessions from Britain and Japan. However, the resulting equilibrium was unstable. Already on US conferences declared insufficient Japanese concessions in China; in turn, Japan immediately after it embarked on the path of revising Washington's decisions.
At Constitution Hall, Washington. The conference was attended by the United States, Great Britain, China, Japan, France, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands and Portugal, as well as five British dominions, although the main issues were resolved by the three strongest maritime powers of the United States - British Empire - Japan. Soviet Russia did not receive an invitation to Washington, as a result of which it declared its non-recognition of any decisions of the conference.
The Washington conference was convened at the initiative of the United States, which hoped to achieve a favorable solution to the issue of naval weapons and consolidate a new balance of forces in China and in the Pacific. The conference was also directed against the national liberation movement of the peoples of the colonial and dependent countries. The Soviet government, which did not receive an invitation to the conference, protested on July 19 and November 2, 1921, against her removal from participation in the conference, and on December 8, 1921, sent a protest against the discussion at it of the issue of the Sino-Eastern Railway. In December 1921, a delegation from the Far Eastern Republic arrived in Washington, but it was not admitted to the conference. It happens very badly.
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Characteristics of conditions
By the time the conference was held, the British government had a debt to the United States - $ 4.5 billion, France - $ 3.5 billion, Italy - $ 1.8 billion.
Main contracts
Four Powers Treaty dated December 13, 1921, which became known as the "Quadruple Pacific Treaty" or "Far Eastern Entente". The treaty was intended to unite the forces of the allies against the national liberation movement of the peoples of the Pacific Ocean basin and the Far East. Under this treaty, the signatories pledged to mutually respect the rights to islands and island possessions in the Pacific Ocean. The treaty also provided for (under pressure from American diplomacy) the liquidation of the Anglo-Japanese alliance of 1902, directed at that time against the US plans in the Far East and the Pacific. Some British dominions (primarily Canada), who feared Japan's strengthening at the expense of China and other countries of the Far East, also spoke out against the Anglo-Japanese alliance. Thus, the agreement legalized the status quo and temporary balance of the four powers in the Pacific region.
Five Powers Treaty, better known as the Washington Naval Agreement of 1922. Treaty between the United States, Great Britain, Japan, France and Italy on the Limitation of Naval Arms. The agreement established the ratio of the tonnage of battleships and aircraft carriers in the following proportion: 5: 5: 3: 1.75: 1.75 (USA, England, Japan, France, Italy, respectively). The US proposal to ban the construction of battleships with a displacement of more than 35 thousand tons was also accepted. The agreement was concluded for a period until December 31, 1936.
Nine Powers Treaty dated February 6, 1922, signed by all participants in the conference. The treaty concerned ensuring guarantees of China's territorial integrity, respect for its sovereignty, and also proclaimed the principle of "open doors and equal opportunities" in relation to China in the field of trade and business and obliged not to resort to using the internal situation in China in order to obtain special rights and privileges. that may harm the rights and interests of other states parties to the treaty. China was considered by the parties to the treaty as a common object of exploitation. This treaty was directed against Japan's claims to monopoly dominance in China. Even earlier, on February 5, 1922, Japan was forced to sign the so-called Washington Agreement- the Sino-Japanese agreement on the evacuation of Japanese troops from the Chinese province of Shandong, as well as on the return to China of the Qingdao-Jinan railway and the Jiao-Zhou territory. The head of the Japanese delegation pledged that the Japanese government would not demand that the Chinese government fulfill the fifth group of "twenty-one demands" of Japan on the appointment of Japanese advisers to the Chinese government, etc. However, Japan rejected China's demand for the withdrawal of Japanese troops from South Manchuria. Simultaneously with the Treaty of Nine Powers, on February 6, 1922, the Treaty on the Chinese Customs Tariff was signed, which consolidated China's customs inequalities.
International conference on the limitation of naval arms and the problems of the Far East and the Pacific Ocean. Held from November 12, 1921 to February 6, 1922, at Constitution Hall, Washington. The conference was attended by the United States, Great Britain, China, Japan, France, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands and Portugal, as well as five British dominions, although the main issues were resolved by the three strongest maritime powers of the United States - British Empire - Japan. Soviet Russia did not receive an invitation to Washington, as a result of which it declared its non-recognition of any decisions of the conference.
The Washington conference was convened at the initiative of the United States, which hoped to achieve a favorable solution to the issue of naval weapons and consolidate a new balance of forces in China and in the Pacific. The conference was also directed against the national liberation movement of the peoples of the colonial and dependent countries. The Soviet government, which did not receive an invitation to the conference, protested on July 19 and November 2, 1921, against her removal from participation in the conference, and on December 8, 1921, sent a protest against the discussion at it of the issue of the Sino-Eastern Railway. In December 1921, a delegation from the Far Eastern Republic arrived in Washington, but it was not admitted to the conference.
By the time the conference was held, the British government had a debt to the United States - $ 4.5 billion, France - $ 3.5 billion, Italy - $ 1.8 billion.
Basic agreements [| code]
Four Powers Treaty dated December 13, 1921, which became known as the "Quadruple Pacific Treaty" or "Far Eastern Entente". It included countries such as the United States, Britain, France and Japan. The treaty was intended to unite the forces of the allies against the national liberation movement of the peoples of the Pacific Ocean basin and the Far East. Under this treaty, the signatories pledged to mutually respect the rights to islands and island possessions in the Pacific Ocean. The treaty also provided for (under pressure from American diplomacy) the liquidation of the Anglo-Japanese alliance of 1902, directed at that time against the US plans in the Far East and the Pacific. Some British dominions (primarily Canada), who feared Japan's strengthening at the expense of China and other countries of the Far East, also spoke out against the Anglo-Japanese alliance. Thus, the agreement legalized the status quo and temporary balance of the four powers in the Pacific region.
Five Powers Treaty, better known as the Washington Naval Agreement of 1922. Treaty between the United States, Great Britain, Japan, France and Italy on the Limitation of Naval Arms. The agreement established the ratio of the tonnage of battleships and aircraft carriers in the following proportion: 5: 5: 3: 1.75: 1.75 (USA, England, Japan, France, Italy, respectively). The US proposal to ban the construction of battleships with a displacement of more than 35 thousand tons was also accepted. The agreement was concluded for a period until December 31, 1936.
Nine Powers Treaty dated February 6, 1922, signed by all participants of the conference. The treaty concerned ensuring guarantees of China's territorial integrity, respect for its sovereignty, and also proclaimed the principle of "open doors and equal opportunities" in relation to China in the field of trade and business and obliged not to resort to using the internal situation in China in order to obtain special rights and privileges. that may harm the rights and interests of other states parties to the treaty. China was considered by the parties to the treaty as a common object of exploitation. This treaty was directed against Japan's claims to monopoly dominance in China. Even earlier, on February 5, 1922, Japan was forced to sign the so-called Washington Agreement- the Sino-Japanese agreement on the evacuation of Japanese troops from the Chinese province of Shandong, as well as on the return to China of the Qingdao-Jinan railway and the Jiao-Zhou territory. The head of the Japanese delegation pledged that the Japanese government would not demand that the Chinese government fulfill the fifth group of "twenty-one demands" of Japan on the appointment of Japanese advisers to the Chinese government, etc. However, Japan rejected China's demand for the withdrawal of Japanese troops from South Manchuria. Simultaneously with the Treaty of Nine Powers, on February 6, 1922, the Treaty on the Chinese Customs Tariff was signed, which consolidated China's customs inequalities.
Washington Conference in Works of Art [| code]
Jaroslav Hasek gave a parody image of the conference in a humorous story on disarmament.
Notes [| code]
- Tooze, J. Adam. The deluge: the Great War and the remaking of global order, 1916-1931
- “Now that there are restrictions on the increase in the tonnage of navies, a new competition begins, it will be a competition for quality.” - Lloyd George.
Literature [| code]
- Golovin, N .; Bubnov, A. The Pacific problem in the 20th century. Chapter XII: Washington Conference // Alexey Vandam, Nikolay Golovin, Alexander Bubnov. Unheard Prophets of Coming Wars = The Problem of the Pacific in the Twentieth Century (1922). - M .: AST, Astrel, 2004 .-- 368 p. - (Great confrontations). - 5100 copies. - ISBN 5-17-025223-4.
Links [| code]
FOUR HOLDING TREATY 1921
signed on 13. XII at the Washington Conference (see) between the USA, Great Britain, France and Japan; formalized the liquidation of the Anglo-Japanese alliance.
US diplomacy sought to undermine the Anglo-Japanese alliance long before the convening of the conference in Washington. The fulfillment of this task was made easier for the United States by the fact that there was no unity in the British Empire itself on the issue of extending the alliance with Japan. At the Imperial Conference of 1921, Canada opposed the alliance, while Australia and New Zealand, fearing Japanese aggression, spoke out in favor of maintaining allied relations with it. With the aim of putting pressure on the British government in April 1921, the editor of the New York Times, Oaks, was sent to London on an unofficial mission.
As a result of Oks's negotiations with the first lord of the Admiralty, Lee, the British government concluded that the resumption of the Anglo-Japanese alliance would cause a sharp aggravation of relations with the United States. Washington also used the Irish question to put pressure on England.
In connection with the forthcoming discussion in the US Congress in the summer of 1921 on the recognition of the Irish Republic, Secretary of State Hughes in a conversation with the British Ambassador Geddes on 23. VI said that the decision of the Congress would depend on the nature of relations between England and Japan. British diplomacy decided to give in. Despite the fact that the question of the Anglo-Japanese alliance was not included in the agenda of the Washington Conference, 1.
XII 1921 the British delegate Balfour invited the Japanese delegate Kato for negotiations. Subsequently, the United States took part in the negotiations, as well as France (attracted at the initiative of the United States). The negotiations were carried out in strict secrecy, and a ready-made draft of the treaty was presented to the conference.
In Art. I and II Ch. D. The parties agreed "to respect in their mutual relations the right of each of them to their island possessions and island territories in the Pacific Ocean", and also agreed on mutual consultation in the event that these rights are endangered by any -or another power.
Art. III determined the term of the agreement at 10 years, with a subsequent extension for an unlimited period, if one of the parties does not declare its denunciation 12 months in advance. The most important article of the agreement is Art. IV, which provides that from the moment of its entry into force, the Anglo-Japanese alliance is terminated. The declaration attached to the agreement states that the distribution of Art. I and II treaties on mandated territories in the Pacific Ocean does not mean that the United States recognizes the mandate system. Like other decisions taken at the Washington Conference, Ch.
Washington Conference (1921-1922)
e. not only did not take into account the interests of the great Pacific power - the Soviet Union, but was also directly directed against the Soviet state. The treaty secured Japan's strategic positions near Soviet territory.
Participants of the Washington Conference
The conference was attended by Belgium, Great Britain, Holland, Italy, China, Portugal, USA, France and Japan. The delegation of the Far Eastern Republic was not admitted to it.
Reasons and goals of the conference
The states participating in the conference tried to consider the problems that arose in the Pacific and Far Eastern regions after the First World War and the Paris Conference.
The United States and China were unhappy with the strengthening of Japan, which managed to squeeze the US and Great Britain out of the Chinese market by imposing agreements on economic privileges on China and securing the rights to the Shandong Peninsula (China's sphere of influence) and the former German colonies in the Pacific Ocean.
It was important for the United States to resolve the issue of naval weapons.
Results and decisions of the Washington conference
three agreements were signed: "Treaty of the Four Powers", "Treaty of Five Powers", "Treaty of Nine Powers".
The Washington Conference established a temporary balance of power in the Pacific and Far Eastern regions. At the same time, her decisions reflected the emerging contradictions, primarily between the United States and Japan.
Washington Conference 1921-1922
The decisions she made did not take into account the interests of Soviet Russia, whose representatives were not invited to the conference.
Attempts were made to "internationalize" the Chinese Eastern Railroad (CER). But as a result of the protests of the Soviet diplomas, the Washington Conference decided that the CER "is indeed the property of the Russian government."
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Versailles-Washington system
The agreements signed at the conference were an addition to the Versailles system.
On the basis of the entire set of treaties, the Versailles-Washington system was formed, which determined the conditions for the post-war peace settlement in Europe, Asia, Africa and the Pacific Ocean. It served as a source of temporary stabilization in the field of international relations. However, the Versailles-Washington system did not provide long-term guarantees of the world order.
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Washington Conference 1921-1922
on the limitation of naval weapons and the problems of the Far East and the Pacific Ocean basin.
Held from November 12, 1921 to February 6, 1922 in Washington. It was a stage in the creation of the so-called. Versailles-Washington system, i.e. territorial redistribution of the world and spheres of influence between the main imperialist powers after the 1st World War.
It was convened at the initiative of the United States. In work The Washington Conference the USA, Great Britain, China, Japan, France, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands and Portugal took part. Delegates from the British Dominions and a delegate speaking on behalf of India were also present.
The conference was led by the "Big Five" - the United States, Great Britain, France, Italy and Japan, but many issues were resolved by the "Big Three" - the United States, Great Britain and Japan. The following main documents were developed and signed at the conference:
Four Powers Treaty(USA, UK, France and Japan), in which the participants pledged to mutually respect the rights to islands and island possessions in the Pacific Ocean.
Signed on 13 Dec. 1921. Provided for the joint protection of the territorial "rights" of the contracting parties in the Pacific Ocean, pursued the goal of uniting their efforts against the national liberation movement of peoples in the Pacific Ocean basin and the Far East. Terminated the action of the Anglo-Japanese alliance in 1902, which determined the alignment of forces in World War I in the Far East and the Pacific Ocean.
Five Powers Treaty(USA, Great Britain, Japan, France and Italy) on the limitation of naval armaments, which established an advantageous, mainly for the USA, ratio of naval weapons.
Washington Conference of 1921, its decisions
The agreement established a certain proportion of the maximum tonnage of the linear fleet: the USA -5, Great Britain - 5, Japan - 3, France - 1.75, Italy - 1.75. The total tonnage of battleships was not supposed to exceed: for the USA and Great Britain 525 thousand tons, for Japan 315 thousand tons, for Italy and France 175 thousand tons. The tonnage of aircraft carriers was also installed: 135 thousand tons for the USA and Great Britain, 81 thousand tons for Japan and 60 thousand tons each for Italy and France.
The agreement provided for the maximum displacement norms for ships and the maximum caliber of artillery: battleship - 35 thousand tons and 406 mm; aircraft carrier - 27 thousand tons and 203 mm; cruisers - 10 thousand tons and 203 mm. For other classes of ships, incl.
submarines, there were no restrictions. The construction of new naval bases in the Pacific Ocean was prohibited, with the exception of areas immediately adjacent to the coast of the United States, Canada, Alaska, the Panama Canal zone, Australia, New Zealand and Hawaii.
The appendices talked about protecting neutral ships from submarine attacks and condemned the use of chemical weapons during the war.
Nine Powers Treaty(USA, UK, France, Japan, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, Portugal, China). Signed Feb 6. 1922. Provided signatory countries with "equal opportunities" in China for trade and business.
China was considered by the parties to the treaty as a common object of exploitation. The treaty was directed against Japan's claims to monopoly dominance in China. 4 fsvr. 1922 was signed by the so-called. Washington Agreement. Japan was ordered to withdraw some of its troops from China, return the Qingdao-Jinan railway to China, and ter.
Jiaozhou.
At the Washington Conference, the United States achieved a number of important concessions from Britain and Japan, but this did not satisfy American imperialism. The United States declared that Japanese concessions in China were insufficient, while Japan, immediately after the Washington Conference, embarked on the path of revising its decisions.
The Washington Conference was clearly anti-Soviet in nature. This was evidenced by the fact that the RSFSR and the Far Eastern Republic were not invited to the Washington conference. At the Washington Conference, the United States put forward a plan to seize dominance and positions on the Chinese Eastern Railway under the guise of its "internationalization", which was not adopted as a result of the decisive protest of the RSFSR.
The Soviet state did not recognize the decisions of the Washington Conference and sent a protest to the governments participating in the conference.
Publ .: Washington Conference on Arms Limitation and Pacific and Far Eastern Issues 1921-1922. M., 1924; Soviet-American relations 1919-1933.- In the book: Collection of documents on international politics and international law. No. 9. M., 1934; USSR foreign policy documents. T. 4 - 5.
M., 1960 - 61. See subject-topics. decree.
Lit .: Lenin V.I. On the domestic and foreign policy of the Republic. Report of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee and SNK 23 December. (IX Bseros. Congress of Soviets 23-29 December 1921) .- Complete collection. op. Ed. 5th. T. 44, p. 304-305; History of diplomacy. Ed. 2nd. T. 3.M .. 1965, p. 238-248; V.Ya.
Struggle for the Pacific Ocean. Japanese-American Controversy. M., 1947; Popova E.I. US policy in the Far East (1918-1922). M., 1967.
L. V. Kochetkov
Military Encyclopedia. Map of site.
In case of full or partial copying of materials, a direct indexed link to the site "military-encyclopedia.rf" is required. About the project.
As a result of the conference, 3 treaties were adopted: treaties of 4, 5 and 9 powers.
Treaty of four: USA, Japan, England and Fr. Non-aggression pact on each other's colonial possessions. A separate article of this treaty provided for the abolition of military-polit. union of Japan and Great Britain.
The Treaty of the Four Powers legally formalized the principle of partnership between the great powers in the APR on the basis of collective security guarantees as the basis of the new regional system of the Ministry of Defense.
But the watered obligations had to be secured by material guarantees of their fulfillment. They were recorded in the treaty of the 5 powers on the limitation of naval armaments signed on February 6, 1922.
The main issue was the limitation of naval weapons. The treaty was of great importance in relation to the APR. He put an end to the dangerous trend towards an unrestricted arms race.
Treaty 9: USA, France, England, Italy, Belgium, Holland, Japan, Portugal and China.
The principle of respect for the territorial integrity and sovereignty of China was proclaimed. The countries declared equal opportunities in trade and industrial spheres on its territory. They agreed to respect China's status as a neutral state.
February 1922 The Washington Conference ended its work.
The main result of the conference was the restoration of international political equilibrium in the APR.
The Washington Defense System was formed. Discussion of post-war problems ended with the Washington conference. It was a kind of continuation of the Versailles conference. Compared to Versailles, the Washington MO system was more balanced.
Reflecting the balance of power of the leading Pacific powers, it is
Any state-va immediately begin consultations. If one of the parties is attacked, the other must help her. At the same time, a reservation was made in the protocol when the treaty was signed: the USSR undertook an obligation to come to the aid of Czechoslovakia on condition, if France would help it.
an exchange of instruments of ratification took place in Moscow. As for the Franco-Soviet treaty, its ratification was delayed, and it entered into force only on March 27, 1936.
Nazism and fascism and create democratic institutions of their own choice, freely choose a form of government for themselves.
Thus, the Yalta conference was one of the largest international meetings of the war period and the highest point of cooperation between the three powers against a common enemy.
Despite the disagreements, it demonstrated the possibility of successful cooperation of the state in two different political systems - socialist and capitalist. The decisions of the Yalta conference were of great importance for the quickest end of the war and for the post-war organization.
The conference worked out a program for a democratic order in the post-war world.
15.MO in Europe during the initial period of World War II.
The entry into the pre-war period was due to the collapse of Versailles-Washington.
MO systems. England and France, adhering to the policy of appeasement until the spring of 39, were forced to withdraw from it after Hitler's troops occupied Czechoslovakia. England and France guaranteed military support in the event of aggression from Hitler to Poland, Romania, Greece, Turkey, Belgium, Holland and Switzerland.
In response to these actions, Hitler announced his unilateral withdrawal from the naval agreements with Britain in 1935. Then Hitler decides to start hostilities against Poland.
Hitler had no doubt that Germany would have no problems with the quick capture of Poland, but here he had a problem of a different nature - the USSR. Poland is a state-m directly bordering on the USSR, which meant that the USSR could not remain calm in this scenario.
On April 17, 1939, the USSR offered England and France to conclude a tripartite treaty on mutual assistance in watered. alliance against Hitler.
But Ang. and Fr. did not seek cooperation with Russia. The negotiations were very sluggish and ultimately failed.
Under these conditions, the USSR agreed to conclude a non-aggression pact with Germany. It was signed in Moscow on 23 August. 1939 People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs of the USSR Molotov and Minister of Foreign Affairs of Germany Ribbentrop. This treaty is known as the "Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact".
It included the following items:
- maintaining neutrality if one of the parties is attacked by another aggressor country.
- The parties will not participate in any international coalitions directly or indirectly directed against each other.
In addition to the main articles, this treaty also contained a secret protocol, according to which the participating countries agreed on the division of the sphere of interests in Europe.
On September 1, 1939, Germany entered the territory of Poland, and already on the third day, Great Britain was fulfilling its duties.
and France declare war on Germany. The war was fought in a very “strange” way, for which it was christened as a “strange war”, because neither Great Britain nor France actually waged any war. On September 17, German troops occupied Warsaw, and by the end of September the USSR occupied those territories that were stipulated in a secret agreement. On September 28, Ribbentrop arrived in the USSR and a treaty of friendship and borders with 2 secret protocols was signed.
1st - adjustment of spheres of influence, Lithuania and USSR.
2nd - suppression of the Polish national liberation movement.
In September
Thus, at the beginning. 18th century the balance of power in Europe has completely changed. The leading statesmen were Russia, Austria and England.
A new system of the Ministry of Defense was formed - the Post-Utrecht. It existed until the end of the 18th century. and was destroyed during the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars.
Spain. But in Spain he met with a resolute rebuff. Given the difficulties of Napoleon, Austria began to gather forces for a new fight against him.
Napoleon was interested in an alliance with Russia. In 1808, another meeting between Napoleon and Alexander took place in Erfurt. The new political situation determined the conclusion of an agreement in which the interests of Russia were observed to a much greater extent than in Tilsit.
Thus, the Tilsit system of MO was formed, which existed until 1812, when France unleashed a war with Russia.
5.The main issue in the first half of the 19th century.
Crimean War. Paris Congress
In the 1st half of the 19th century. one of the main issues of the Ministry of Defense was the eastern issue related to the solution of the Turkish problem.
Conflict between Egypt and Turkey. In 1832. Pasha of Egypt Mehmed Ali moved his troops against the Turkish Sultan Mahmud 2. Around the crisis in the East, a diplomatic struggle broke out between Russia, England and France. England and Fr. They did not want Russia's participation in resolving the eastern conflict.
The ambassadors of England and France managed to achieve the conclusion of peace between the Sultan
Turkey and the Pasha of Egypt.
After the conclusion of the peace in 1833. Count Orlov and representatives of Mahmud 2 signed the Unkar-Is-Keles alliance-defensive tract between Russia and Turkey.
At the end of the 30s. the struggle between the Turkish Sultan and the Egyptian Pasha intensified again.
By 1839. a huge army was created in Turkey. In June 1839. the Turks entered Syria. The Turkish army was defeated.
July 15, 1840 England, Austria, Russia and Prussia signed a convention in London in support of the Sultan of Turkey against the Egyptian Pasha. They agreed to exert both diplomatic and military pressure on Mehmed Ali.
In July 1841.
Russia, England, Austria, Prussia and France signed an agreement with Turkey concerning the regime of passage of ships through the Bosphorus and Dardanelles. In peacetime, the straits were declared closed to ships of all countries. But Turkey received the right to issue permits for passage through the straits of light ships belonging to the embassies of friendly powers.
Russia's relations with other countries over the Eastern question deteriorated markedly. The reason for the discord with France was the question of holy places, the rights of the Orthodox and Catholic Churches.
Nik.1 decided to use the disagreement about the holy places to fight Turkey. Nik.1 presented in March 1853. Sultan 2 notes verbales with categorical requirements. The Sultan rejected them.
July 21, 1853 Russians crossed the Prut River and began to advance in the Danube principalities without declaring war on Turkey. 4 Oct 1853
Turkey has declared war on Russia.
On March 12, England, France and Turkey signed an alliance agreement. England and France declared war on Russia.
The Crimean War lasted from October 1853 to February 1854. Turkey, France, England, the Kingdom of Sardinia took part against Russia. Russia lost the war.
In February 1856. the Paris Congress took place. The Paris Peace Treaty was signed on March 30.
According to him, Russia returned the city of Kars to Turkey, and France, England and Sardinia returned the captured cities and ports (Sevastopol, Evpatoria, Kerch, etc.) to Russia. The countries that signed the Paris Peace Treaty have reaffirmed the Convention
7. Formation of military-political blocs in Europe at the end of the 19th-beginning. 20th century
The first signs of a new situation of forces and the creation of two opposite blocs appeared in the last years of the 19th and early years of the 20th century.
A number of agreements and treaties were concluded between individual countries. The European states gradually intensified their diplomatic activities.
At the end of the 19th century. significantly complicated relations between Austria-Hungary and Russia, between Germany and France. The situation in Europe was heating up. This contributed to the conclusion of the Austro-German alliance in 1879, which was, in fact, defensive in nature, provided for mutual military assistance in the event of an attack by Russia on one of the allies and benevolent neutrality in the event of an attack by any other power.
But this alliance was indirectly directed against France, because in the event of an attack by Germany on France and Russia's entry into the war on the side of France, Germany would be supported by Austria-Hungary.
Austria sought to get closer to Italy to ensure its security in the event of a war with Russia. After negotiations, a ditch in May 1882. Austria-Hungary, Germany and Italy signed an alliance treaty - the Triple Alliance.
The actual creation of a military-political bloc of these 3 states was the first step on the way to the 1st World War.
In the beginning. 20c. France and Germany were preparing for war between themselves and sought to find themselves allies. France was in talks with England, Russia and Italy. Germany - with Italy and Russia. 1 nov. 1902 France concluded a non-aggression pact with Italy.
1904 in London, a Franco-English treaty was concluded - the Entente. The agreement consisted of 2 parts - open and secret. England and France resolved the colonial issues, thereby untiing their hands for a joint struggle against Germany.
The next member of the Entente was to be Russia.
Germany actively tried to win Russia over to its side. However, the conclusion of an alliance between Germany and Russia did not take place. With the efforts of France, which achieved the conclusion of an agreement between England and Russia, their negotiations began. During them, issues were considered that affect the interests of both countries in the Middle East. 31 Aug 1907 the Anglo-Russian agreement on the affairs of Persia and Afghanistan was signed.
In fact, it was the inclusion of Russia in the Entente. Thus, by the fall of 1907. there was an alliance of England, France and Russia, which opposed the alliance of Germany and Austria-Hungary. Italy withdrew from the Triple Alliance.
As a result, by 1914, 2 blocs were formed on the arena of world politics, the contradictions between which intensified.
Washington Conference 1921-1922
Germany and Austria-Hungary had less and less to rely on the support of Italy in the event of a collision with
entered the United States, its outcome was not in doubt.
In 1916-1917.
a crisis was brewing in Russia. The growth of the anti-war and anti-government movement took place. The internal situation in Germany was not much better.
In her political circles, the opinion about the need to conclude peace with Russia has become stronger.
December 22, 1917 in Brest-Litovsk began negotiations on the conclusion of peace between Russia, Germany and other countries that fought with her.
On March 3, 1918, a peace treaty was concluded in Brest-Litovsk between Russia and the countries of the Quarter Union (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey).
His conditions for Russia were very difficult.
In the summer of 1918, Germany launched another major and this time the last offensive. German troops set their sights on Paris, but the French counter-attacked and seized the initiative. 8 Aug Eng. and fran. The troops broke through the front in the Amvens area and defeated the Germans.
After that, the Quadruple Alliance collapsed. In the fall of 1918, one country after another began to ask for peace. Bulgaria was the first to surrender, followed by Turkey.
The Entente troops went on the offensive, broke through the German front and quickly began to advance into the center of Germany.
In 1918, the Allies gathered to negotiate the terms of the armistice. In the end, it was possible to agree on the requirements, which boiled down to the following: the liberation of the occupied territories of Belgium, France and Luxembourg, the withdrawal of troops from Alsace-Lorraine and Romania, as well as the liberation of the left bank of the Rhine.
Two days later, the Soviet government announced the annulment of the Brest Peace Treaty of March 3, 1918 and an additional treaty signed by Soviet Russia and Germany on August 27, 1918.
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The fragility of the Versailles-Washington system
The decisions of the Paris and Washington conferences laid the foundations for the Versailles-Washington system of post-war international relations. Its creation helped to defuse post-war tensions. These decisions included a number of provisions that testified to the growing understanding of the need to renew the principles of international relations - this is both the recognition of the right to self-determination of peoples and the rejection of war as a means of resolving conflicts.
An important event in the history of international relations was the creation of the League of Nations. The independence of a number of European countries was recognized, for which their peoples fought for a long time. Despite these achievements, the system itself turned out to be fragile; its collapse led ultimately to a new world war.
The fragility of the Versailles-Washington system was due to a number of reasons.
The Entente powers were not magnanimous victors. The burden of the post-war reconstruction fell on the defeated peoples. It was not taken into account that these peoples had already overthrown the political regimes that took part in unleashing the war. In establishing reparations, the winners did not take into account the real possibilities of the vanquished, acting on the principle "the loser pays for everything."
The wave of nationalism raised by the First World War did not subside. Now her strength was supported by feelings of national humiliation.
Soviet Russia also found itself outside the Versailles-Washington system.
For the victorious powers, Russia was primarily a traitor who made a separate peace with the enemy. The Bolshevik regime caused a hostile attitude; the Entente countries attempted to overthrow it during the 1918-1919 intervention.
The ongoing civil war in Russia gave a formal reason not to invite its representatives either to Paris or to Washington. The Bolsheviks, meanwhile, won a victory in the civil war, restored the state in almost pre-war borders - as the largest in the world. However, the signature of Soviet Russia was not under any peace treaty.
Pushed aside from solving world affairs, it could not help but become opposition to the Versailles-Washington system.
For the peoples of the German colonies and the former Ottoman Empire, the Versailles-Washington system became only a change of rulers, none of these peoples gained independence. A mandate system was established for them. The metropolises received a governing mandate from the League of Nations.
The creation of the system was conceived as a means of weakening the colonial oppression, since it provided for the guardianship of the League over the mandated territories. However, in connection with the withdrawal of the United States from the League of Nations, precisely those countries that received mandates to manage these territories remained in the Council. The League's trusteeship became a fiction, and the position of the mandated territories was no different from that of the colonies.
This demonstrated to the peoples of the colonies the commitment of the great powers to colonialism. Therefore, the anti-colonial liberation movement continued.
At the Paris Conference, the great powers showed complete disregard for the possible economic consequences of treaties that burdened the world economy with exorbitant reparation payments and severed economic ties that had developed for centuries.
They were strikingly short-sighted when they forced the young German democracy to sign a world that was shameful for the Germans.
Stabilization of international relations in the 20s
The signing of peace treaties and the settlement of the main contradictions between the victorious powers contributed to the stabilization of international relations.
Efforts made in the 1920s to overcome the most obvious weaknesses of the Versailles-Washington system further contributed to this stabilization.
Recognition of the USSR
It became obvious the futility of attempts to isolate Soviet Russia, which, after the collapse of the plans of its leadership to lead the world socialist revolution, began a campaign for its international recognition. In 1922, she was first invited to an international conference on economic issues in Genoa.
During this conference, Soviet Russia and Germany signed the Rapallo Treaty, according to which they agreed to withdraw mutual claims and establish diplomatic relations. Since 1924, a period of diplomatic recognition of the USSR begins on the part of the rest of the West. The only exception was the United States.
The relations of the Western countries with the Soviet Union remained unequal. The USSR was never admitted to the League of Nations during these years, but it was nevertheless recognized as a member of the international community.
Softening the position of Germany
The conditions of peace were softened for the defeated countries and, above all, for Germany.
The most pressing issue was the question of reparations. The volume of reparations established in 1921 was beyond Germany's strength. In 1924, a plan was adopted, developed by the American banker Charles Dawes, according to which the total amount of reparations was not reduced, but the volume of annual payments was reduced.
The plan also provided for the provision of a large Anglo-American loan to Germany. The adoption of this plan helped to start the recovery of the German economy.
In 1929, the volume of reparations was significantly reduced. The idea of a historic reconciliation with the new Germany was put forward. The main promoters of this idea were the foreign ministers of France and Germany, Aristide Briand and Gustave Stresemann.
Rhine Guarantee Pact
In 1925, the Rhine Guarantee Pact was signed, which contained the obligations of France, Germany and Belgium to respect the inviolability of their borders and not to attack each other.
This was the first recognition of Germany as an equal partner after the war. In 1926 Germany was admitted to the League of Nations as a permanent member of the Council. Thus, she was granted the status of a great power. All this made international relations more stable.
In the 1920s, a major step was taken in the development of international law. For the first time, disarmament problems were widely discussed at the intergovernmental level.
These steps, however, were doomed to failure, since the Versailles-Washington system established an inequality in armaments, and all negotiations actually resulted in the consolidation of this inequality.
Geneva Convention
At the same time, in 1925 it was possible to sign the Geneva Convention on the Prohibition of the Use of Chemical and Bacteriological Weapons.
During the First World War, almost 40 thousand soldiers died from gas attacks. A. Briand also initiated the signing of a special international agreement on the refusal of war (the Briand-Kellogg pact), which entered into force in June 1929.
US isolationism
The United States remained aloof from European and world affairs. The Republicans who were in power in America in the 1920s pursued an isolationist course that did not correspond to the role of the United States in world affairs. The pace of economic development in the United States after the war was the highest.
They were the creditors of the whole world. Loans from the United States allowed Germany to pay reparations, which were then returned to the United States in the form of war debt payments. Isolationism promoted Britain and France to leading roles in world politics.
International relations, in general, developed in the 1920s without crises and sharp contradictions.
Several reasons can be identified that made the post-war peacekeeping system unstable and ineffective.
6. Washington Conference 1921-1922: content and meaning.
The Versailles order was not all-encompassing. First of all, the USSR and the USA, the two largest powers, without which it was already impossible to ensure stability in Europe in the twentieth century, "dropped out" from it. In fact, the multipolar structure of European relations was restored in the spirit of the European equilibrium of the 19th century, when the ideal option seemed to be the absence of countries on the continent that would have too clearly pulled ahead in their geopolitical and other possibilities.
It was these ideas that led to the fact that France's efforts to weaken Germany as much as possible were crowned with success: it was divided into parts, artificially reduced in size and placed in an extremely difficult economic situation. But for this reason, France itself, through the efforts of Britain, did not gain dominance in Europe and was unable to fully implement the plans to expand its influence.
But such a European equilibrium was only possible with the participation of Prussia (which was now replaced by a united Germany) and Russia.
The new European security was to be built, firstly, in the conditions of a united Germany, and, secondly, in the conditions of reduced in size and isolated from European affairs, Russia.
Unfortunately, only the first of these new circumstances was taken into account, which resulted in the fragmentation of Germany, which made it possible to postpone the conflict between the interests of the largest European countries and the natural desire of the Germans to unite. The second, at first, was not taken into account at all - at that moment it seemed that US participation in European affairs was sufficient compensation for Russia's withdrawal from European politics. In this situation, the frustration of hopes of cooperation with the United States undermined the foundations of the Versailles Order as it was originally conceived.
2. The fundamental weakness of Versailles was the scheme of economic interaction between European countries laid down by him. The fact is that the new state delimitation completely destroyed economic ties in Central and Eastern Europe. Instead of a single market, permeable and fairly open, Europe turned out to be a territory divided into several dozen small markets fenced off from each other by customs walls.
Often the new small states fiercely competed not only in the political, but also in the economic sphere, fully concentrating on their own economic difficulties and not trying to make joint efforts to overcome them.
The proclaimed principle of self-determination of nations gave rise to an economic split, which European countries could not overcome. This created a permanent instability of the economic situation in the Old World. Europe turned out to be not ready to take joint decisions on financial and economic issues.
In addition, the economic ruin of Germany, crushed by the weight of reparation payments imposed on it and unable, therefore, to get out of the depression with the speed necessary for economic recovery not only in the country, but throughout Europe, had a decisive impact on the negative development of the situation.
The world economic crisis of 1929-1933 led to a sharp deterioration in relations both between the victor countries and between them and the defeated states, etc. All this, coupled with the intra-national crisis of most states, led to the collapse of the Versailles-Washington system and the Second World War.
Peculiarities
- Discrimination of the position of the defeated states and Soviet Russia.
So, Germany lost the rights to its colonies, was strongly limited in the possession of the armed forces and was suppressed economically through the mechanism of reparations. Similar conditions were provided for Turkey and Bulgaria, and Austria-Hungary ceased to exist as a single state.
In addition, all the defeated states suffered significant territorial losses. The defeated states for a certain time were "excluded" from a number of system-forming elements and transformed exclusively into objects of influence of the Versailles subsystem. Soviet Russia, not being formally defeated, was also excluded at the initial stage.
The Rapallo Treaty of 1922 is considered to be a formal recognition of this fact on the part of Russia. The conclusion of this treaty gives impetus to broad cooperation between Germany and Soviet Russia.
- Consolidation of the leadership of the United States, Great Britain and France in the new system, which actually gave them the right to collegially change the characteristics of the international system and form its principles.
Other winners (such as Italy) remained in the background.
- Political isolation of the United States from European affairs. After the failure of W. Wilson's "14 points", the United States withdrew itself from solving political problems in Europe, choosing economic influence as a priority means of foreign policy in this region. The Dawes plan (1924), as well as, to a certain extent, Young's plan (1929), demonstrated the degree of economic dependence of European countries on the United States, which by 1918 became the main creditor, although before the outbreak of the First World War they themselves were the debtors of European countries.
- The formation of a number of new sovereign subjects of international relations in Europe, whose foreign policy at the later stages of the development of the system contributed to the development of crisis processes.
- Creation of the League of Nations - an instrument for maintaining the status quo in the system of international relations.
This instrument, actually controlled by France and Great Britain, turned out, however, to be ineffective in fulfilling its stabilization functions.
- The world is gradually ceasing to be Eurocentric, the international system is beginning to turn into a global one.
- The Versailles-Washington system was characterized by a certain asynchrony of transformation processes in two main subsystems (European and Far Eastern), which, in turn, led to the subsequent destabilization of the system, that is, systemic changes in one of the subsystems over time caused a new burst of transformations in the other.
- A specific type of control characteristic of a given system, which can be characterized as egalitarian-hierarchical.
While within the framework of the system there was a certain hierarchy of means and subjects of systemic control, in practice the main elements of control were represented by egalitarian forms (collective security, the League of Nations, international legal agreements of a universal nature).
a conference that fixed the balance of forces between the imperialist powers in the Far East that took shape after World War I. It was held in Washington from November 12, 1921 to February 6, 1922. The USA, Great Britain, China, Japan, France, Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium, and Portugal took part in the work of the conference; Delegates from the British Dominions and a delegate speaking on behalf of India were also present. The military command was convened at the initiative of the United States, which hoped to achieve a favorable solution to the issue of naval armaments and to consolidate the new balance of forces of the imperialist powers in China and in the Pacific basin. The conference was directed against the national liberation movement of the peoples of the colonial and dependent countries and the Soviet state. The Soviet government, which did not receive an invitation to the conference, announced on July 19 and November 2, 1921 protests against the removal of the RSFSR, one of the main Pacific powers, from participation in the conference, and on December 8, 1921, it protested against the discussion at it of the question of the Sino- East Railway (CER), "relating exclusively to China and Russia." In December 1921, a delegation from the Far Eastern Republic arrived in Washington. , but she was not admitted to the conference. The following basic documents were developed and signed at the V. k.
Treaty of the four powers (USA, Great Britain, France and Japan) on the joint protection of the contracting countries of their territorial "rights" in the Pacific Ocean; signed on December 13, 1921. The treaty pursued the goal of uniting imperialist forces against the national liberation movement of the peoples of the Pacific Ocean basin and the Far East. The treaty also provided (under pressure from American diplomacy) the liquidation of the Anglo-Japanese alliance (1902), directed at that time against the plans of the United States in the Far East and the Pacific. Some British dominions (primarily Canada), who feared Japan's strengthening at the expense of China and other countries of the Far East, also spoke out against the Anglo-Japanese alliance.
The Treaty of the Five Powers (USA, Great Britain, Japan, France and Italy) on the Limitation of Naval Arms, which changed the ratio of the latter in favor of the USA; signed on February 6, 1922. By signing this treaty, Great Britain reaffirmed its forced consent to renounce unconditional predominance at sea. The treaty established a certain proportion of the maximum tonnage of the linear fleet of its participants: USA - 5, Great Britain-5, Japan-3, France-1.75, Italy - 1.75. The total tonnage of battleships to be replaced was not supposed to exceed: for the USA and Great Britain, 525 thousand tons each. T, for Japan 315 thous. T, for Italy and France 175 thous. T. The tonnage of aircraft carriers was also installed: 135 thousand. T for the USA and Great Britain, 81 thous. T for Japan and 60 thousand. T for Italy and France. However, the total tonnage of the navies of the powers was not limited, and the de facto superiority of the British navy was thus maintained. Japan secured a commitment by the American and British governments not to build new bases on the Pacific Islands east of the 110th meridian east longitude (with the exception of islands off the coast of the United States, Canada, Alaska, the Panama Canal zone, Australia, New Zealand, and Hawaii); thus Japan secured itself a serious strategic advantage in the area.
Nine Powers Treaty (USA, UK, France, Japan, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, Portugal and China); signed on February 6, 1922. The treaty provided the states that signed it with "equal opportunities" in China in the field of trade and business and obliged them not to resort to using the internal situation in China in order to obtain special rights and privileges that could harm the rights and interests of others. States parties to the treaty. China was considered by the parties to the treaty as a common object of exploitation. This treaty was directed against Japan's claims to monopoly dominance in China. The agreement was in line with the American "open door" policy, through which the United States hoped to oust its competitors from China. Earlier, on February 4, 1922, Japan was forced to sign the so-called Washington Agreement - the Sino-Japanese agreement on the evacuation of Japanese troops from the Chinese province of Shandong, as well as on the return of railways to China. d. Qingdao - Jinan and the territory of Jiaozhou. The head of the Japanese delegation pledged that the Japanese government would not require the Chinese government to comply with the fifth group of Japan's "Twenty-One Demands" (See Japan's Twenty-One Demands) (on the appointment of Japanese advisers to the Chinese government, etc.). However, Japan rejected China's demand for the withdrawal of Japanese troops from southern Manchuria. Simultaneously with the Treaty of Nine Powers, on February 6, 1922, the Treaty on the Chinese Customs Tariff was signed, which consolidated China's customs inequality.
The V. k. Did not make any changes to the existing situation on the Chinese Eastern Railway at that time. As a result of decisive protests by the governments of the RSFSR and China, as well as disagreements among the participants in the Eastern Caucasus, the American plan to seize dominant positions on the Chinese Eastern Railway under the guise of its "internationalization" was not adopted. The decisions reached in the eastern capital completed the redistribution of colonial possessions and spheres of influence of the imperialist states in the Pacific Ocean and the Far East that took place after World War I. American imperialism has made a number of important concessions from Britain and Japan. At the same time, the balance, which was formed as a result of V. to., Was unstable. Already at the Western Conference the USA declared that Japanese concessions in China were insufficient; in turn, Japan immediately after the conference took the path of revising the decisions of the conference.
Publ .: Washington Conference on Arms Limitation and Pacific and Far Eastern Issues 1921-1922, Poln. translation of acts and documents of A.V. Sabanin, M., 1924; Soviet-American relations 1919-1933. Sat. documents on international politics and international law, No. 9, M., 1934.
Lit .: Lenin V.I., IX All-Russian Congress of Soviets, Poln. collection cit., 5th ed., vol. 44, p. 304-05; Accidents V. Ya., Struggle for the Pacific Ocean. Japanese-American Contradictions, M., 1947; his, The Struggle for the Pacific Ocean. Aggression of the USA and England, their contradictions and the liberation struggle of peoples, M., 1952; Popova E.I., US policy in the Far East (1918-1922), M., 1967; Sullivan M., The great adventure at Washington. The story of the conference, L., 1922.
V. Ya. Accidents.
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