More than a dozen new non-Windows users greet the phrase “bootloader” with a fair amount of doubt and skepticism these days. And there is an absolutely logical reason for this: most beginners, before they switch to using other, less common operating systems on the market, Everyday life used the same Windows. In it, this bootloader is implemented as primitively and transparently as possible. And although this to some extent adds convenience for the average user, it also reduces functionality already the most popular and versatile OS. Therefore, all those who decide to pay attention to other products of the IT industry should definitely familiarize themselves with universal bootloader GRUB, which in the future will significantly help in working with several operating systems installed on one computer.

A universal tool for non-universal systems

First of all, let's start with the name GNU GRUB. This abbreviation from English translates as “main unified bootloader”. Its creator is the non-profit organization "GNU Project", which has become famous in the IT sphere for its freely distributed software. GRUB itself essentially presents a menu for selecting how to boot the OS the user needs from a whole list of supported systems:

• Linux.
• FreeBSD.
• Solaris.

In this case, GRUB will be able to work even with Windows. However, for launching such systems that are not directly supported by this bootloader, there are special nuances that we will study a little later in all the details and details.

Technology development path

The continuously growing popularity of GRUB was the fundamental reason that prompted the steady development and improvement of the bootloader in the future. The very first version of the bootloader, called GRUB Legacy, still copes well with the tasks of a unified bootloader for UNIX-like systems. Widespread support from serious companies (like RedHat and Novell) and server distributions ensured its continued existence in general.

However, even this circumstance had absolutely no impact on the further improvement of the bootloader, thanks to which users received the latest version of GRUB 2 at the moment. Being rewritten from scratch, GRUB 2 hardly has anything in common with the outdated GRUB Legacy, except for the name itself . Today, being used by default since version 9.10 of the Ubuntu operating system, GRUB of the second revision, due to its more advanced and powerful structure, has completely stopped any further development of Legacy, which has already proven itself so well in the past.

However, from the very beginning, a beginner should understand that GRUB 2 is a more complex boot loader compared to the previous version. Therefore, in order to protect users from possible difficulties and problems, all the smallest details will be described below simply and in detail, understanding of which will allow you to take full advantage of all the innovations in the latest version, and there are quite a few of them:

• Script support (cycles, conditions, variables and functions).
• Graphical interface adds flexible changes appearance bootloader to suit the individual taste of the user (GRUB 2 can be easily changed from a black and white table to a stylish multi-colored window).
• Possibility of dynamic loading of modules. This will allow you to expand the functionality not at the assembly stage, but directly during execution.
• Compatible with different architectures.
• Added support Mac downloads OS.
• Added stable work with file systems such as: FAT16, FAT32, NTFS, any version ext, XFS And ISO
• The cross-platform installation type will make it possible to install GRUB2 from a different architecture
• Introduction safe mode in case of problem situations.
• Fixed errors from the old GRUB Legacy that initially could not be fixed due to the requirements

Has everyone heard of LILO?

Of course, the choice of users among OS loaders is not limited to GRUB alone. A similar analogue is LILO - the Linux initial loader (LInux LOader), which still does not completely lose its relevance. However, in favor of GRUB, several should be taken into account distinctive features, which a direct competitor definitely cannot boast of yet:

• LILO supports only 16 boot configurations, while GRUB supports an unlimited number of such configurations.
• GRUB can boot by local network, which cannot be said about LILO.
• Finally, LILO does not have that very command interactive interface, the convenience of which users have long been accustomed to latest version GRUB.

The only one common feature For both bootloaders, it is necessary to compile all changes made to the menu each time. Function automatic saving has long been absent from the proprietary Linux bootloader. GRUB 2 also does not boast such a convenient feature. But even taking into account this inconvenient everyday use nuance, LILO is inferior to its competitor on several points, thanks to which it is becoming increasingly widespread among home computer users.

Installing GRUB: all the nuances and details of the process

From the very beginning, make sure you have either installed Ubuntu, or there is a boot disk (LiveCD). After starting the system, you need to call the terminal using the key combination Ctrl+Alt+F2, and then enter the following commands in it:

Sudo add-apt-repository ppa:cjwatson/grub,

Sudo add-get update && sudo add-get install grub2,

Sudo update-grub2.

And even if you do not have Ubuntu installed, but have a LiveCD, the procedure remains the same with only one tiny difference. After booting from this, select the “Try Ubuntu” option - this way you will start the system without any changes on your computer. After that, continue installing the GRUB boot loader in the same way from the terminal call stage.

Check installed version bootloader can be commanded grub-install -v, as well as directly during Ubuntu boot itself.

GRUB startup algorithm

As GRUB Install completes, the boot loader first changes the MBR code to its own. MBR is a sector containing the master boot record (from English containing:

• main bootloader code (446 bytes);
• partition table with a description of both primary and secondary partitions of the hard disk (64 bytes).

Due to the small volume MBR sector, launching GRUB fits into two conditional stages:

1. The MBR contains a link to the configuration file (which can be located on any hard drive, at the discretion of the user). It is by this that the entire loading stage, starting at the second stage, will be determined.
2. Their configuration file takes into account all the settings and data necessary for GRUB to work. If at the second stage the configuration file was not found, then the boot process will be terminated and the user will have to manually select the boot configuration from the command line.

This boot structure allows GRUB to be more widely configurable and flexible than many other analogues, in which this process is simplified to maximum compactness.

Most commonly used console commands

The considerable scope of working possibilities in the console mode of the latest version of GNU GRUB, setting and configuration capabilities will also not leave users indifferent. In order to get into it, just press the “C” key while the boot menu is displayed, after which all you have to do is enter the commands you need correctly:

Post-installation GRUB: setup and useful software

The main configuration file in GRUB2, unlike previous version Legacy is not /boot/grub/menu.lst, and already /boot/grub/grub.cfg. However, there is no point in editing it directly - it will be generated with each saved change in the settings file /etc/default/grub and in the scripts directory /etc/grub.d.

IN /etc/default/grub Customization is mainly limited to changing the default boot item and/or menu display time:

• The parameter responsible for the first point of change is GRUB_DEFAULT, the value of which indicates the number of the item in the boot menu. When selecting any other item, the user must know its order from the general list (to do this, you need to view the contents /boot/grub/grub.cfg and find by account the desired entry). At the same time, do not forget the numbering rules: the first item is assigned the value 0, the second - 1, the third - 2, and so on.
• The parameter responsible for delaying the display of the boot menu is GRUB_TIMEOUT, whose assigned value in quotes denotes the number of seconds during which this splash screen will appear. There is one tricky feature in editing this parameter: by setting the value to "-1", the screen saver will hang exactly until the user selects an item.

A set of scripts in /etc/grub.d find everything on the computer installed systems and nuclei, forming boot menu in grub.cfg. Two main ones are responsible for searching for kernels and other operating systems: 10_linux and 30_os-prober. The 40_custom file allows you to modify GRUB by adding your own boot items, which is useful for working with special types of system startup (note that with any changes it must end with an empty line, otherwise the last boot item from all those proposed will simply not be displayed).

However, an even easier way to edit GRUB on an Ubuntu system is the Grub-Customizer utility. Thanks to its simplicity and intuitive interface, it best option to configure the bootloader, most suitable for inexperienced beginners. To install, launch the terminal (Ctrl+Alt+T), then enter the following commands in it one by one:

Sudo add-apt-repository ppa:danielrichter2007/grub-customizer,

Sudo add-get update,

Sudo add-get install grub-customizer.

And although the translation of the Grub-Customizer program leaves much to be desired, it is very easy to understand:

• List configuration- menu settings when loading the system. Here the order of its points is changed.
• basic settings- selecting the system to boot by default, as well as determining the waiting time.
• Appearance - editing the appearance of the boot menu.

In addition to all the variety of settings, the user should definitely pay attention to the well-proven software for working with GRUB, the configuration and diagnostics of which will become much more comfortable:

• Super Grub Disk- simple and handy tool For quick recovery bootloader. At the same time, it can work not only with GRUB and LILO, but even with Windows itself. Runs from a CD, flash drive or floppy disk.
• GParted- disk partition editor, launched directly from the CD. With its help, you can perform operations with partitions and file systems on them, such as: creating, deleting, resizing, checking, moving and copying.
• SystemRescueCD - Linux distribution, in a special way designed for disaster recovery.
• TestDisk- a utility that allows you to diagnose and restore both individual partitions and entire boot disks.

How does the bootloader handle Windows OS?

Unfortunately, GRUB cannot directly boot Windows x86 in any way (the 64-bit version is also no exception), which is why it is necessary to create an appropriate launch chain mechanism. To do this, in the configuration file grub.cfg you need to add several lines of specific commands:

Title Windows,

Rootnoverify (hd*,*),

Chainloader +1,

Example and detailed description the latter was just listed in the table of console commands. Now the very practical case has come when it will come in handy at work. However, before it there are a couple more equally important for Windows boot lines:

• rootnoverify (hd*,*)- the same analogue set root. It informs GRUB about the location of the partition on which the next part of the boot code is located, but does not mount it (for the obvious reason that GRUB cannot do this). Please note once again that part (hd*,*)- this is the disk number and partition number, respectively, on which Windows is installed.
• makeactive- the command gives the specified root partition boot status.

Now the same team chainloader +1, which transfers all further boot control directly to the Windows boot loader.

Finally, the final boot command starts the boot, after which you can safely work in the selected operating system.

It also happens that not one, but two or even more versions Windows. And then carry out a stable launch without additional hide/show commands ( hide/unhide) sections is simply unrealistic. The bottom line is that if the GRUB configuration file specifies the hiding of any partition of the drive, then Windows simply will not be able to read it. And if the partition is visible, then it will be possible to boot from it.

If you have multiple operating systems, first decide which instance you want to boot, then check its exact location - you need to know on which partition of the hard drive it is installed. For example, there are two different Windows versions, located respectively on the first and second partitions of one drive, and the user needs to load the second one. To do this, you need to make the following changes in the menu.lst file:

Title Windows,

Unhide (hd0,1),

Rootnoverify(hd0,1),

Chainloader +1,

Commands have been added compared to the previous code sample hide And unhide, thanks to which the user can boot the desired operating system from a given hard drive partition.

Reinstalling GRUB in case of critical problems

Even in case of technical problems, restoring GRUB is a completely simple task. First, download the installation LiveCD, open the terminal using the keyboard shortcut CTRL+ALT+T.

After this, enter the commands one by one:

• sudo grub-install /dev/sda - install GRUB directly into the MBR (sda is the boot disk);
• sudo update-grub - search for other boot entries on the hard drive (for example, Windows).

Now all that remains is to restart the computer and make sure that the reinstalled bootloader is fully functional.

Question about reboot loop protection

The need for such a protection system integrated into the GRUB boot loader appears when the size of the logs located in the /var/log directory grows to unacceptable volumes due to uncontrolled recording of information in them. In a normally operating system there are special services, archiving and cleaning these logs in automatic mode. Thus, in most cases, the user absolutely does not need to spend time controlling their volume.

However, these same services start only after booting operating system. Before this, the size of the log files is absolutely not monitored by anything, which is why in the event of an unexpected system crash and further reboots, the logs will only grow in volume. And this uncontrolled growth will continue exactly as long as the reboots last due to a failure in the system. Subsequently, all this can lead to complete filling of the partition on which the /var/log directory is located, which can lead to the system freezing and making it impossible to even start recovery mode.

It is from this catastrophic situation that the protection system integrated into GRUB saves cyclical reboots, displaying a frozen GRUB menu awaiting explicit user intervention. The protection itself is based on the value of the recordfail variable specified in the /boot/grub/grub.cfg script. During each boot it is installed as recordfail=1, and at the final boot stage it is reset to recordfail=0. And if just such a reset does not happen, then automatic loading is completely prevented and the same GRUB protection is activated.

To do this, in /etc/defaul/grub we find the variable GRUB_RECORDFAIL_TIMEOUT and assign it a value of the number of seconds during which the GRUB menu will wait for user intervention if recordfail is not reset from 1 to 0. After which we save the changes with the command sudo update-grub, thereby disabling protection against loopy reboots.

Who might benefit from this? Only for stations and servers that do not have a keyboard for input/output of information. Without it, in case of such problems, booting the system is generally impossible. Cases of boot loops are not that common and mostly occur due to either power issues or software glitches.

Uninstalling GRUB and returning to Windows: fast, easy and painless

If the question arises, “How to remove GRUB and leave the bootloader of another operating system?”, then first of all the user will need its installation disk/flash drive. Let's look at everything in concrete terms simple example: user deletes from his Linux computer, leaving in the end only Windows, but at the same time cannot load it due to an error Grub error. For complete solution problems, you need to restore the Windows x86/64 bit bootloader:

1. We boot from the installation drive, having previously set it to first priority when loading into the BIOS
2. Booting from installation media, select the system recovery partition.
3. From the list of tools that appears, select the command line, in which we write the following commands one by one:

• BOOTREC.EXE /FixBoot.
• BOOTREC.EXE /FixMbr.

Since GRUB can be removed in a few steps, after all successful operations we reboot the computer and work without any problems in the Windows system.

If you happen to install any of the Linux OS distributions on a computer with installed Windows, then you probably know that Linux has its own GRUB boot loader. After installing the Linux OS, when you start the computer, the first thing the BIOS accesses is hard sector disk with boot record GRUB. A remarkable property of this bootloader is that it has the ability to transfer the boot along a chain, for example, to our any Windows bootloader (for example NTLDR).

So, let's imagine a situation where you are tired of using Linux and you decide to leave only Windows on your computer. You deleted the Linux partition and when you booted up your computer, you discovered that the GRUB boot loader had not disappeared.

It is also possible that (it all depends on where you installed the bootloader when installing Linux) that your computer may stop booting altogether. This is logical, since when you delete a Linux partition, the GRUB boot loader is damaged.

So, how to restore Windows bootloader and completely remove Linux from your computer?

First, you will need an installation disk or flash drive with any version of the MS Windows operating system (Windows 98, Windows 2000, XP, 2003 or Windows Vista, Server 2008, Windows 7).

Boot from the installation media. How to enter the BIOS and boot from a flash drive or disk

How to log into the console Windows recovery 7, can be read in .

Restoring the Windows boot loader using the installation tool Windows disk 98

Boot into the command prompt and run the following command:

Exit the command line by typing Exit, and press Enter.

By using Windows installer 2000, XP, 2003

During the first phase of the text installation, click R key at the moment the corresponding inscription appears at the bottom of the screen (almost immediately after the installation starts).

This will take you to the recovery console. Select your system and enter the administrator password if you have one. In the console, enter the following command:

Click Y key to confirm and dial Exit to exit the recovery console.

Using the Windows Vista, Server 2008, Windows 7 installer

Boot from the installation media and in the window Windows installations click on the link System Restore. detailed instructions with screenshots in .

Login to the command line and run the following command:

Exit the command prompt and restart your computer. Don't forget to change the boot options in BIOS and remove the installation media!

These steps will allow your computer to boot directly into Windows.

Guard.

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Women's skin is very delicate, and therefore it requires special treatment. However, not every representative of the fair sex pays due attention to their skin.

Very often, girls and women notice that their dermis begins to look not its best only when it becomes too dry and rough.

In such a situation, every beautiful lady wonders how to remove rough skin and get her body in order?

Modern cosmetology offers a lot of completely painless procedures that will help you get rid of this unsightly cosmetic defect in one or several sessions.

Meanwhile, such procedures are almost always expensive and, moreover, not every woman has the opportunity to regularly visit beauty salons and studios.

In this article we will tell you what to do if you have rough skin on your heels, elbows or fingers and toes, and how to get rid of this problem at home.

Causes of roughening of the skin

Before starting to fight the keratinized layer of the epidermis on different parts body, you need to figure out what reasons provoke its appearance. Otherwise, all your efforts will be practically pointless, because literally a few days after the treatment the situation will return to normal.

The most common causes of excessive coarsening of the dermis on the human body are:

• Too dry skin in most cases is associated with internal problems– lack of vitamins and minerals in the human body, various endocrine diseases, hormonal changes, as well as kidney disorders;
• keratinization of the upper layer of the epidermis on the feet can cause excessive stress on this part of the body. Typically, a similar situation is observed in people with excess body weight, those who spend the whole day in a standing position, as well as women who cannot imagine their life without high-heeled shoes. In some cases, the reason may also be wearing shoes made of low-quality materials or the wrong size;
• Also, the skin can change its structure under the influence of fungal infection;
• roughening of the skin on the hands is also often found in people whose profession involves daily excessive pressure on these areas, for example, musicians, shoemakers or handymen;
• allergic reactions can also lead to the proliferation of epithelial cells and the appearance of their horny layers;
• finally, in some cases, this problem may indicate the occurrence of pathological processes in the human body, for example, the growth of a malignant tumor.

Is it possible to remove rough skin from your heels yourself, and how to do it?

When keratinized areas of the epidermis appear on any part of the body, it is necessary, first of all, to make changes to your diet. You should eat properly and nutritiously to provide your body with a sufficient amount of vitamins B, A and E. In addition, it is recommended to use various folk cosmetology products, with which you can achieve noticeable results in a short time.

Removing rough skin on your heels at home can be quite difficult, but if you wish, you can significantly improve its condition.

To do this, you need to take a foot bath every evening, before going to bed, and then clean your heels and lubricate them with a nourishing cream containing any cosmetic oil, vitamin E and other useful ingredients, as well as regularly make healing masks for your feet.

The following recipes will help you prepare these miraculous folk cosmetology products to remove rough areas from your heels:

• one of the most simple procedures– steaming the legs in a soda solution. To do this, pour the required amount into a suitable container. hot water and dissolve in it baking soda, taking into account the ratio of 1 tablespoon of powder per liter of liquid. Keep your feet in this bath for about 15 minutes until the water cools down. Immediately after this, the rough skin on the feet should be cleaned with an ordinary pumice stone, a file or a foot brush. You can also use a special industrial foot scrub. After cleansing, lubricate your feet with nourishing cream, put on cotton socks and go to bed to rest;
• It is very useful to steam your feet in a decoction of medicinal plants, such as sage, St. John's wort, calendula or elecampane. To prepare this liquid, crushed dry grass is poured with clean water, taking into account the ratio of 1 tablespoon of raw material per liter of liquid, placed on the stove, brought to a boil and boiled for about 5 minutes. You should lower your feet into the prepared broth after about 15 minutes, when it has cooled down a little, and also steam your feet for about 15 minutes. After this, it is recommended to clean the skin with pumice and lubricate the heels with cosmetic oil;
• Another useful recipe for preparing a foot bath is extremely simple - add a little sea salt and a few drops of your favorite to the desired amount of warm water essential oil. Take a bath for about 15 minutes;
• for achievement best effect 1 or 2 times a week you can make such a mask for your feet - combine the yolk of a chicken egg with a teaspoon of olive oil and the same amount of lemon juice. Apply the prepared mixture to the heels and secure with gauze or bandage, and after half an hour, rinse off;
• Another option for preparing an effective mask is to mix olive oil and slightly melted honey in equal proportions, apply this mixture to your feet and wash after 15-20 minutes.

How to soften rough skin on elbows?

Unsightly, rough skin on the elbows with the presence of flaky areas and cracks is also in most cases associated with a lack of vitamins and a violation of the water-alkaline balance of the dermis. That is why, first of all, you need to enrich your daily diet with fresh vegetables and fruits, as well as fresh herbs. It would also be a good idea to take a course of any of the multivitamin complexes presented in the assortment of pharmacies.

Additionally, to improve the condition of the skin, you can use the following effective means:

• Take 4 cotton pads and soak them generously in heated olive oil. Place 2 disks on the elbows of both hands and wrap with wide bandages. After about 40 minutes, remove the compress and remove any remaining oil with an ordinary napkin;
• Break a chicken egg and separate the yolk from the white. Add a tablespoon of cottage cheese to the yolk and grind the ingredients until smooth. Apply this mixture to your elbows, wrap them with polyethylene, and cover them with a bandage. After about 20 minutes, wash yourself in a warm shower. This mask additionally helps to get rid of age spots;
• cut a whole lemon into 2 halves and rub thoroughly into the rough skin of your elbows for 15 minutes or longer;
• Peel one medium-sized potato, grate it on a fine grater and add a teaspoon of honey to it. Mix well and apply the resulting mixture to rough elbows, then secure firmly with a piece of natural fabric. Wash off the mask after half an hour, wipe your hands dry and lubricate with nourishing cream.

How to get rid of rough skin on fingers and toes?

To soften rough skin on the fingers and toes, you can use all of the above methods. It is also very useful and effective to wipe your fingers and the skin between them with a cut aloe leaf, tomato paste or a small piece of fresh tomato or dandelion juice.

But in this topic, I want to tell you how you can deal with already rough skin on your fingers. Whether to do it yourself or seek help from a specialist is up to you to decide.

Let's start with a simple method - contact a specialist. A qualified specialist will easily help you remove rough skin on your fingers, as well as treat the skin and the area of ​​the side rollers. But for the effect to be long-term, you have to homework– daily care of hands using hand cream.

You can do it at home too remove rough skin on fingers:

• Let's use a simple one. For our purpose, a file with an abrasive coating of 150-180 grit is suitable. This file will easily exfoliate dry skin on your fingers and side rollers, the main thing is to use it on clean and dry skin of your hands. This method is safe, because you won’t be able to overdo it. the skin will heat up from friction and there will be a feeling of increasing warmth.
• If the skin is damp, the file may not be able to do the job on its own. They will come to the rescue for the skin/cuticle. Important! They can only be used on well-softened hand skin. To do this, you can use baths or professional removers.

When working with wire cutters, it is important to remember possible consequences and do not give free rein to thoughts of “a little more and a little more.” Try to cut off no more than ½-2/3 of the overgrown skin. To prevent any snags/burrs from appearing in the future, the cut area can be sanded with a nail file (but on dry skin).

To consolidate the result, you can use the following hand care techniques:

So, to remove rough skin on your fingers, you can contact a specialist or use the tools in your cosmetic bag (nail file and cuticle nippers). But in any case, home skin care is important, as well as protecting your hands from aggressive external influences.

After several unsuccessful attempts, double Ubuntu downloads 15.04 and Windows 10 on the same hard drive and on a computer with UEFI firmware, and not knowing what caused the first unsuccessful attempt, I decided that subsequent unsuccessful attempts must have happened due to existing Ubuntu GRUB in the folder Boot EFI.

Moreover, the device always freezes when the installer tries to install GRUB

So I thought that if I could just delete the ubuntu folder from the Boot EFI folder then the installation would complete successfully. Ultimately it didn't happen, but I did figure out how to remove GRUB files from Windows 10 from the command line.

This topic describes how this was done. It included listing and selecting detected ones from the command line hard drives, listing the partitions on the hard drive, and then finally listing and deleting the target folder. Another reason you might want to do this is to delete Linux partitions, which won't cause automatic deletion GRUB files from the Boot EFI folder.

So start answering the question ““.

To get started, log into Windows 10, click the Command Prompt menu, PowerShell, or click the search box and type cmd. Then click right click mouse over the terminal application icon and select "Run as administrator". Figure 1 shows the commands (underlined) used to complete the first step—enumerate and select hard drive. To make copy and paste possible for those who may need it, I have provided the commands in the code block after the last image.

In this picture, the target disk is shown as a 465 GB HDD with a GPT partition

Figure 1: Using diskpart to list hard drives detected in Windows 10

After selection target disk its partitions will be listed so that the partition (volume) corresponding to the Boot EFI folder can be identified. In Figure 2, this partition is volume 2. Typically this is the only volume with FAT32 in the Fs column ( file system) and System in the Info column. Once it has been identified and selected, you assign it a drive letter to make things easier. In this example, I have assigned it the drive letter D. After that, exit diskpart.

Figure 2: List of disk partitions in Windows 10

The final task is to navigate to the Boot EFI folder and specify its contents to determine which subfolder the GRUB files will be. It will be located in the EFI folder. GRUB files for installed distribution will be located in a folder with the same name as the distribution. For example, if Ubuntu was installed, as in this example, the folder name would be ubuntu. Delete the folder using the rmdir /s command. This Windows equivalent 10 Unix/Linux commands rm -r.

All commands used are listed in this code block.

Translation made from the site linuxbsdos.

You may also be interested in how to refresh your Ubuntu system and as a shell.

Please note that this procedure is not necessarily the best or the only way do this, so if you know about best method, post a comment on our website. I will definitely add to the article if your option turns out to be more convenient.

If you have questions on the topic “How to remove the Grub bootloader,” then write them also in the comment form on our website. Thank you for your visit!

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