On November 5, 1986, two inmates daringly escaped from federal prison in Pleasanton, California. We are talking about 42-year-old Ronald McIntosh, convicted of fraud, and 37-year-old Samantha Jlonec, guilty of a bank robbery. They were lovers, they were immediately dubbed "lovebirds" as soon as the news of their escape appeared in the press.
This is how it happened. Macintosh managed to hijack a helicopter. A former military pilot, he boldly rushed down into the prison yard, landed, grabbed Lopez, and the helicopter took off. The guards did not dare to shoot at the helicopter, it could crash into the yard and kill many people. The beloved hid from the police for 10 days. But in the end, they were detained while trying to get money by check on the territory of a shopping center in the suburbs of Sacramento. They were heading for a yacht anchored off the coast in Washington state; probably wanted to flee to Canada.
Obviously, the described case is a vivid example of deviation: two criminals, who were found guilty by the court, are escaping from prison ... But when reporters interviewed prison officials, crime experts and passers-by, completely different opinions were expressed about this "deviant" deed.
Some considered the fugitives to be cunning, clever people who managed to outwit the law. One said that he would gladly do the same, while the other expressed the hope that the beloved would never be caught. Some even perceived them as a kind of folk heroes. Other commentators have criticized Pleasanton federal prison for its sloppy security and lenient treatment of prisoners; they compared the prison to a "country club", even to some extent believed that people were doing the right thing by escaping from there.
One of the lawyers who defended the criminals after they were detained near Sacramento told the judge that the escape was "justified."
The case of Macintosh and Jlonec illustrates how difficult it is to assess actions that can be described as manifestations of deviant behavior ... Our assessments depend on whether we expect compliance with the rule of law or heroism? In short, deviance is determined by the conformity or inadequacy of actions to social expectations. Should the Pleasanton country club employees be considered deviants for being too gentle? We cannot answer this question, as there is uncertainty as to how harsh or lenient prison guards should be. Was Jlonec's past bank robbery deviant? Most of us would answer this question in the affirmative, since Jlonec's act is a violation of criminal law, and there is general agreement on the advisability and necessity of such a right.
The criteria for defining deviant behavior are ambiguous. They are often controversial, and it is difficult to establish exactly what types of behavior should be considered deviant in our society. The most striking examples of deviation, most likely, could serve as inhuman acts, which almost always cause condemnation, such as rape and murder.
(N. Smelser)
Explanation.
The correct answer may contain the following characteristics:
1) the criteria for deviant behavior are ambiguous;
2) the criteria for deviant behavior are often controversial.
Answer: None
Values in human life and development of society
Values are one of the components of sociocultural forms. In the course of the development of society, ideas are formed that stand out and to which special value is attributed. They are assimilated by the subject in the experience and experiences of pleasure and displeasure, joy and indignation, i.e. through emotions. On the basis of values, assessment criteria are formed that regulate the attitude of people to the objects of satisfying human needs. In the process of life, a person develops the perception of some objects as valuable, while others are not valuable and even "anti-value" ...
Values can be individual, group, universal. Individual values determine the activities of a particular person and can be of an incoming nature, differ, for example, depending on the age of the individual. Group values (meaning a group in a broad sense - as a social community, a type of society) are of a more general nature: they are defined as the accepted in a given community of ideas about the desired type of sociocultural form. General human values are characterized by the fact that they have an enduring character, they are guidelines for most people, regardless of their gender, age, historical era in which they live. The number of such values is limited. For example, they include truth, beauty, goodness.
Perceived and entrenched values are transformed into social norms with the help of which the forms of human activity are maintained, reproduced, and regulated.
I. G. Petrov
Explanation.
The response states that
On the basis of values, assessments of various social phenomena, actions of people are formed;
The entrenched values are transformed into social norms that regulate the activities of individuals and social institutions.
Read the text and complete tasks C1-C4.
Family structures are falling apart all over the world. Divorce rates are on the rise in both the developed and underdeveloped worlds, as is the number of female-headed households.
Family values are not threatened by government programs that interfere with the education of families (although there are such programs), and not by media programs that belittle the family (although there are such programs); they are threatened by the economic system itself. This system simply does not allow families to cope with the old way, with the father providing most of the earnings and the mother doing most of the parenting work. The middle-class family with one breadwinner is no longer there.
Social relations are not determined by economics - there can be many possibilities at the same time - but whatever these relations may be, they must be compatible with economic reality. Traditional family relationships are not like that. As a result, the family as an institution is in the process of change and pressure. The point here is not “character formation,” but stubborn economic selfishness or, more precisely, the unwillingness to subordinate one's own interest to the interests of the family. The economic reality forced us to reconsider the basic issues of family organization.
Explanation.
The response indicates the following manifestations of the crisis of family relations:
The increase in the number of divorces;
An increase in the number of single-parent families.
Subject area: Social relations. Family and marriage
Read the text and complete assignments 21-24.
In modern European culture, interest in personality, self-identification, and in the social mechanisms of personality formation has intensified.
The most important way of becoming a personality is the socialization of the individual, the process of assimilation by the individual of the socio-cultural experience necessary for life in a given society.
In terms of content and form, socialization depends on the type of culture to which the individual belongs. So, for example, in primitive communal, ancient, feudal, bourgeois societies, there are special mechanisms that regulate the processes of an individual's entry into a certain collective. Primitive economic activity and the static nature of culture in a traditional society, low life expectancy standardized the process of socialization, reducing it mainly to an initiation rite, symbolizing the offensive for a teenager of social maturation and responsibility. The upbringing system was based on the inclusion of the younger generation in the joint activities of the elders, the most important mechanism of socialization was religious rituals, and in later societies - religious schools.
In addition, the process of socialization largely depends on the class, estate of the individual. In the process of socialization, social norms and values of a certain era are appropriated as motives for individual-personal behavior, the basis of personal choices.
Family is a significant way of socialization both in pre-industrial societies and in modern cultures.
In modern developed countries, the content of socialization is radically rethought. In the new changing conditions, mobile mechanisms of socialization, special institutions of socialization are needed. First of all, the education system has become such an institution.
(G.G. Kirilenko)
Explanation.
The correct answer should state:
Subject area: Social relations. Socialization
What are the signs of a social group indicated in the text?
Read the text and complete assignments 21-24.
Group membership
In social psychology, a group is understood as two or more individuals who have common goals and stable relationships, as well as to a certain extent interdependent on each other and perceive themselves as part of this group ... At one end of the scale are groups of people who work together for years. Obviously, they satisfy all the conditions of the definition. At the other end are people who have only short-term relationships with each other ...
People join social groups for a variety of reasons. First of all, groups help to satisfy important psychological or social problems, for example, the need for attention and love, experience of a sense of belonging. These are subtle but very important needs: Imagine living in complete social isolation! You wouldn't mind it at first, but in the end you would feel terribly alone.
Groups help us achieve goals that we could not accomplish alone. By collaborating with others, we are able to accomplish tasks that one person cannot cope with ... Membership in a group often provides us with knowledge and information that would otherwise not be available to us ...
Finally, group membership contributes to the formation of a positive social identity that becomes part of the “I-concept”. And the more the number of prestigious groups with limited access, to which a person was able to join, the more strengthened his “Self-concept”.
Explanation.
The response names the following signs:
Having a common goal;
Having an established relationship;
The interdependence of people from each other;
People's awareness of belonging to one group.
What four groups of young people involved in labor did the authors identify? Using the content of the text, what is the main reason that prompts each group to work.
Read the text and complete assignments 21-24.
The participation in labor of 14-15-year-olds is the result of a decline in the standard of living of the population. The lower the family income, the more the family is interested in the adolescent's labor activity. It is the family in this case that can stimulate the termination of education and the entry into the labor market of an unskilled worker. Labor prospects of a young person in this case are unfavorable: there is a real danger of permanently gaining a foothold in the sphere of unskilled, as a rule, physical labor, which is fraught with lumpenization of the worker, his transition to marginal strata of society. Occasional participation of 14-15-year-old adolescents in labor activity, not accompanied by the termination of education (for example, during the summer school holidays), can be assessed as a positive phenomenon that meets the interests of the adolescent and society. In this case, we are talking about the initial stages of adaptation to work, about the development of a stereotype of work behavior in a market environment.
The conscious formation of material incentives to work is noted among 16-17-year-olds. This is due to the expansion of the volume of their material and spiritual needs, as well as the ongoing process of socialization. At the same age, there is an active search and choice of the type of future professional activity. The process of obtaining professional knowledge, skills and abilities is most intensive in the group of 18-20 year olds. The specific terms of vocational training can, of course, vary depending on the specifics of the life conditions of a young person, his choice of the type and form of education. Therefore, in terms of a number of behavioral characteristics, this group adjoins the group of 21-24 year olds. Within this framework, the majority of young people complete vocational training and strive no longer for occasional, but for permanent employment.
Among the characteristics of labor activity, job security, opportunities for professional development and job growth are highlighted. Therefore, young people strive to acquire additional skills and abilities. It is at the age of 21-24 that most young people experience the so-called “reality shock” associated with the fact that their ideal ideas about their future work activity conflict with the real situation in the workplace. The period of the initial stage of a career, characterized by joining the organization and finding one's place in it, falls on the same age.
(G. G. Rudenko, A. R. Savelov)
Explanation.
The correct answer should indicate the groups and the motivating reasons for each of them, for example:
1) 14-15 year olds - the need to help the family;
2) 16-17-year-olds young people - expanding the scope of needs, professional self-determination;
3) 18-20 years old young people - the needs of vocational education;
4) 21-24-year-olds young people - striving for permanent employment, career growth. The motivating reasons for each group can be given in other, similar formulations.
Subject area: Social relations. Youth as a social group
In what four areas is it possible, according to the author, for a conflict to arise? How is the contradictory nature of the conflict manifested?
Read the text and complete assignments 21-24.
If we proceed from a large number of socio-psychological studies aimed at finding ways to eliminate conflict from the intrapersonal sphere, the sphere of interpersonal, intragroup and intergroup relations, then it is easy to come to the erroneous conclusion that the conflict plays only a negative role, performs only a destructive function. In reality, however, social conflict, being one of the most striking manifestations of contradiction, is itself internally contradictory, performing not only destructive, but also constructive function.<...>
The manifestations of the destructive functions of the conflict are extremely diverse. An intrapersonal conflict, for example, gives rise to a state of psychological discomfort, which, in turn, entails a series of various negative consequences and, in extreme cases, can lead to the destruction of the personality. At the group level, a conflict can disrupt the system of communications, relationships, weaken value-orientational unity, reduce group cohesion and, as a result, reduce the efficiency of the group as a whole. Similarly, the destructive functions of conflict are manifested in intergroup relationships. Note that the destructive influence of a conflict can take place at each of the stages of its evolution: the stage of an objective conflict situation, the stage of its awareness by the parties, the stage of conflict behavior, as well as at the stage of conflict resolution. Especially sharply destructive effects of the conflict are usually found at the stage of conflict behavior, conflict actions.
The constructive effects of conflict are also manifold. So, it is well known that an intrapersonal conflict is not only capable of exerting a negative impact on the personality, but also often serves as a powerful source of personality development, its improvement. In group and intergroup relations, conflict can help prevent stagnation, serves as a source of innovation, development. The conflict, especially at the stage of conflict behavior, plays a cognitive role, the role of practical verification and correction of the images of the situation that the parties have. In addition, by revealing, exposing the objective contradictions that exist between the members of the group (groups), and eliminating them at the stage of resolution, the conflict frees the group from the factors that undermine it and thereby contributes to its stabilization. It is also well known that an external conflict can fulfill an integrative function, rallying a group in the face of external danger and external problems.
(L.A. Petrovskaya)
Explanation.
The correct answer should contain the following the elements:
Intrapersonal sphere;
Sphere of interpersonal relations;
Sphere of intragroup relations;
Sphere of intergroup relations;
2) an explanation of the contradictory nature of the conflict,
for example: a social conflict plays not only a destructive, but also a constructive role in the development of an individual, a group, and society as a whole. The explanation can be given in a different, similar in meaning form.
Four areas are correctly named and an explanation is given.
Subject area: Social relations. Social conflict
What is the author's definition of education in modern countries? Indicate four positions that, according to the author, constitute the social role of education.
Read the text and complete assignments 21-24.
Education as a social institution Education in modern countries is a very broad and highly developed differentiated multilevel social systems (subsystems of society) of continuous improvement of the knowledge and skills of members of society, which play an important role in the socialization of an individual, his preparation for obtaining a particular social status and performing the corresponding roles , in the stabilization, integration and improvement of social systems. Education has a very important role in determining the social status of an individual, in the reproduction and development of the social structure of society, in maintaining social order and stability, and in exercising social control.
Education, along with the army, church and industry, is one of the lifts of social mobility. Having received knowledge and high qualifications in modern society, it is much easier to make a career than a) it was in pre-industrial and industrial society, b) if a person did not possess them.
For a long time to this day, education as a social institution has been the main mechanism of social testing, selection and distribution of individuals by social strata and groups. The education system was entrusted with the functions of social control over the processes of intellectual, moral, physical development of the young generation. And the system of vocational education, in addition, also has the function of monitoring the distribution of the generation entering an independent working life across various cells of the social structure of society: classes, social groups, strata, production collectives.
Thus, education is one of the main channels of social mobility, playing an important role in the social differentiation of members of society, their distribution both among social strata and within these strata. The position of an individual in society, the possibilities for his successful promotion up the career ladder are determined by the quality of the education received, which is largely related to the prestige of the educational institution.
The way it is. An uneducated person cannot get a highly paid and responsible job, no matter what social background he is. The educated and the uneducated have unequal life chances, but the situation can always be corrected by raising their qualifications, one has only to apply individual conditions. That is what distinguishes inequality in education from other types of inequality, say, inherited, in that it puts a person in an unprivileged position temporarily. But if you were born the son of a king or a hereditary nobleman, then this is already forever. Nothing can be done about such inequality based on prescribed statuses.
(G.E. Tadevosyan)
Explanation.
1) The definition is given:
Education in modern countries is a very broad and highly developed differentiated multi-level social systems (subsystems of society) of continuous improvement of the knowledge and skills of members of society, which play an important role in the socialization of the individual, his preparation for obtaining a particular social status and performing the corresponding roles, in stabilization, integration and improvement of social systems.
2) Four positions are indicated that reveal the social role of education:
- in determining the social status of a person;
- in the reproduction and development of the social structure of society;
- maintaining social order and stability;
- implementation of social control.
The elements of the answer can be given in other formulations that are similar in meaning.
Subject area: Social relations. Social stratification and mobility, Man and society. The main institutions of society
Read the text and complete assignments 21-24.
Social roles is a term actively used by both social psychology and sociology. It focuses on the universal, universal requirements for the behavior of a person in a certain social position.
Social status and social role are two sides of the same phenomenon. (...) Status describes a society in immobility, that is, it reveals a statistical picture of the world. The role describes a society in motion, that is, it reveals a dynamic picture of the world. (...)
A social role is a status-oriented behavior model. It can be defined in another way - as a stereotyped type of behavior aimed at fulfilling the rights and obligations assigned to a specific status. A role describes how status holders interact with each other.
In the link between the concepts of "status-role", the leading place belongs to the first one. That is why the expression "status role" is found in the literature, but "role status" never comes across.
The term "role" is borrowed from the theatrical sphere, where it was intended to emphasize the difference between the actor and the performed part. Many famous actors have tried themselves in the role of Hamlet, just as many graduates of a medical school become doctors.
People cannot behave the way they please. They obey what everyone thinks is right for the role. To a large extent, the behavior of the student is predictable, because the student is a definite role. The same goes for a teacher, salesperson, or statesman. We all know what these people have to do, no matter how much personality they put into their role. In general, all teachers or salespeople behave in a similar way.
(...) “The whole world is a theater, all the people in it are actors, and everyone plays more than one role,” said the great Shakespeare. And if we consider the world as a stage, then we really have to play a great many roles on this stage. We are all sons and daughters, husbands and wives, subordinates and leaders, speakers and listeners, passengers, spectators, specialists, etc. Moreover, this entire repertoire lives inside us at the same time, and each subsequent role is included as we move from one situation to another. We have to be in some of these roles for a longer time, in some relatively insignificant; we cope with some of the roles without difficulty, others are barely bearable for us.
People fulfill many social roles in society. Their distinguishing feature is that the role of father or teacher remains the same if the people in these roles change. It is in this way that predictability and order in society are achieved.
(A.I. Kravchenko)
Explanation.
The correct answer should contain the following elements:
A stereotyped type of behavior aimed at fulfilling the rights and obligations assigned to a specific status.
2. The distinctive feature of the social role is indicated:
The role will remain the same even if the people in that role change.
Can be formulated
C1. From which two groups of phenomena do social phenomena differ, according to the author?
Read the text and complete assignments 21-24.
When I act as a brother, spouse or citizen, (...) I fulfill the duties established outside of me and my actions by law and custom. Even when they agree with my own feelings and when I acknowledge their existence in my soul, the latter still remains objective, since it was not I who created them, but they were instilled in me by upbringing.
How often are we not aware of the details of the duties imposed on us, and in order to learn them, we are forced to cope with the code and consult with its authorized interpreters!
The system of signs that I use to express my thoughts, the system of coins I use to pay off my debts, the instruments of credit that serve me in my business dealings, the customs observed in my profession, etc. - they all function regardless of the use that I make of them. Let them take one by one all the members of the society, and all that has been said can be repeated about each of them. Consequently, these ways of thinking, acting and feeling have the wonderful property that they exist outside of individual consciousness.
These types of behavior or thoughts are not only outside the individual, but also have a coercive force, as a result of which he is forced to them, regardless of his description. Of course, when I voluntarily agree with them, this compulsion, being useless, is felt little or not at all; nevertheless, it is a characteristic property of these facts, as evidenced by the fact that it appears as soon as I try to resist. If I am an industrialist, then no one forbids me to work, using the techniques and methods of the last century, but if I do this, I will probably go broke. Even if in fact I can free myself from these rules and successfully break them, I can only do so after fighting them; even if in the end they are defeated, they nevertheless give enough to feel their coercive power by the resistance they offer. There is no innovator, not even a happy one, whose businesses do not face this kind of opposition.
This is, therefore, a category of facts that differ in specific properties; it is composed of images of thoughts, actions and feelings that are outside the individual and endowed with a coercive force, as a result of which he is forced to
him. Hence, they cannot be confused either with organic phenomena, since they consist of representations and actions, or with mental phenomena that exist only in the individual consciousness and thanks to it. They constitute, therefore, a new species, and it is to them that the name social should be assigned.
(E. Durkheim)
Explanation.
The correct answer should contain the following elements.
Two groups of phenomena are indicated, from which social phenomena differ:
Organic, consisting of views and actions;
Mental, existing only in the individual consciousness.
Subject area: Social relations. Types of social norms
C1. Expand the meaning of the concept of "nation" within the framework of each of the three approaches considered in the text: political and legal, socio-cultural, biological.
Read the text and complete assignments 21-24.
National relations, i.e. relations of people in a community called a nation, or other ethno-national relations, do not exist separately from the state or in parallel with it. National and ethno-national relations are somehow mediated by the state and form a single political whole.
There are three main approaches to understanding the nation: political and legal, sociocultural and biological. In the political and legal approach, a nation is understood as co-citizenship, i.e. community of citizens of a particular state. In international law, when they talk about nations, they mean precisely political, nations that act as “national” states in the international arena.
With a sociocultural approach, the emphasis is on the common language, culture, religion, traditions, customs of a large group of people who make up a nation. This allows us to consider a nation as a community of people who are characterized by a common spiritual culture, historical development, behavioral stereotypes, and everyday life. It should be borne in mind that a nation is also a subjective phenomenon of consciousness and self-awareness.
E. Gellner, a well-known researcher of the phenomenon of the nation, noted: “Two people belong to the same nation if and only if they recognize each other's belonging to this nation. In other words, a nation is created by man; nations are a product of human convictions, preferences and inclinations. "
Most countries in the world base their understanding of a nation on the first two approaches. For all their differences, they have one thing in common - the denial of consanguinity as a determining nation-forming principle.
The third approach to understanding the nation, biological, is precisely based on the recognition of the blood community as the main dominant of the nation.
(Yu.V. Irkhin, V.D. Zotov, L.V. Zotova)
Explanation.
In the answer, the meaning of the concept of "nation" should be disclosed within the framework of three approaches:
1) political and legal: the community of citizens of a particular state;
2) sociocultural: a community of people who are characterized by a common spiritual culture, historical development, behavioral stereotypes, everyday life;
3) biological: recognition of the blood community as the main dominant of the nation.
The meaning of the concept can be given in other, similar in meaning, formulations
Subject area: Social relations. Ethnic communities
Read the text and complete tasks C1-C4.
Social equality is an ideal that, over the centuries, reflected the perennial craving of people for justice and inspired mass social movements and humanistic currents of social thought. Historical practice confirms that complete equality is unattainable. And not only because of the differences in abilities and inclinations inherent in people by nature itself, but also because of the unequal social status, quality and productivity of their work. In this sense, inequality between people is unavoidable and only changes its shape and size.
The impact of inequality on society is also ambiguous. The desire to take a higher position on the ladder of the property hierarchy encourages people to improve the efficiency of their activities and social status. Attempts to introduce an equal distribution of property and income only undermine economic development. But, having exceeded a certain level, property inequality loses its stimulating role, turns into a negative factor in social life. Excessive wealth, especially easily acquired, like marginal poverty, dampens the impulses of economic development, generates social tension, and undermines the political stability of society. To the extent that social inequality is conducive to economic and sociocultural development and the stability of society, it can be considered normal. It becomes excessive when it weakens incentives for economic activity, creates hotbeds of tension fraught with social upheavals.
The problem of excessive social inequality becomes most acute during periods of social transformations, when the established structures of equality and inequality are dismantled, and new mechanisms for the distribution of material goods, social services, values of life and culture are still being formed.
(V.A.Medvedev, Yu.A. Krasin)
Explanation.
The response should include reasons:
1) differences in abilities and inclinations inherent in nature itself;
2) unequal social status;
3) the unevenness of the quality of labor;
4) the unevenness of productivity.
The reasons can be given in other, similar formulations.
What is crime? In its most general form, as formulated by criminological science, crime is not the sum of crimes, but a massive, historically changing, relatively independent socio-legal phenomenon that obeys certain laws and has its reasons ... To understand the nature of crime, it is important to keep in mind that it reflects the characteristics, contradictions and deformations of social life. It is legitimate to say that crime is an extreme expression of the contradictions of social development, entailing such negative consequences for society and its members that none of the other phenomena of the social process entails. Crime damages economic, ideological, socio-cultural and other relations in society, law and order in it, life, health, interests of the individual, “withdraws” its members from normal life and creative activity of society. Crime is a social phenomenon, because it is rooted in the depths of social relations, but it is also a legal phenomenon, because only those acts that are provided for by criminal law are criminal. ... All human experience says that an overestimation of criminal penalties, an overabundance of criminal laws have never led to positive results in the fight against crime. Rather, the opposite is true. Cruelty breeds cruelty in response. Criminal law and criminal repression must be economical, reasonable and humane. (Karpets V.I.)
Explanation.
Factors should be named in the correct answer:
1) contradictions (deformations) of social relations;
2) overestimation of the significance of criminal punishments (“cruelty gives rise to reciprocal cruelty”).
Subject area: Social relations. Deviant behavior and its types
How is this connection expressed?
Read the text and complete assignments 21-24.
Any person holding a high social position in society strives to correspond to his status and behave properly. From a person with the status of a banker, those around them expect very specific actions and do not expect others who do not correspond to their ideas about this status. Consequently, status and social role link people's expectations. If expectations are formally expressed and fixed in any acts (laws) or in customs, traditions, rituals, they are in the nature of social norms.
Although expectations may not be fixed, they do not cease to be expectations from this. Despite this, people expect from the holder of a specific status that he will play a very specific role in accordance with the requirements that they impose on this role. The society prescribes the requirements and norms of behavior to the status in advance. For the correct performance of the role, the individual is rewarded, for the wrong one is punished.
A status-oriented behavior model includes a set of status rights and responsibilities. Rights mean the ability to perform certain actions due to the status. The higher the status, the more rights are given to its owner and the more responsibilities are assigned to him.
The status-oriented behavior model also has external marks of distinction. Clothing is a social symbol that serves three main functions: comfort, decency, and ostentatious expression.
The function of status symbols is also performed by housing, language, demeanor, and leisure.
(R. T. Mukhaev)
Explanation.
The correct answer should contain the following elements:
1) the link between status and role is indicated: people's expectations;
2) the nature of the relationship between status and role is revealed, for example: taking a certain position (status) presupposes a certain behavior (a person behaves properly).
The elements of the answer can be given in other, similar formulations.
Subject area: Social relations. Social role
Source: Demo version of the Unified State Exam-2013 in Social Studies.
What new class of post-industrial society is being noted by the author? What is the reason for the appearance of this class he names? What, in the opinion of most sociologists, should have been a consequence of the emergence of a new class?
Read the text and complete tasks C1-C4.
The modern information revolution leads to the formation of a new class in post-industrial societies, which we have called the "class of intellectuals." Western sociologists drew attention to this as early as the late 1950s; Moreover, it is very characteristic that no negative consequences were visible behind this process at that time. Since, according to popular belief, “information is the most democratic source of power,” most researchers came to the conclusion that the formation of a dominant class that is non-capitalist in nature leads to overcoming the class nature of society, making it classless in the future.
However, real socio-economic processes are increasingly contradicting such assumptions. With each new stage of the technological revolution, the "class of intellectuals" gains more and more power and redistributes an increasing part of social wealth in its favor. In the emerging new economic system, the process of self-growth of the value of information goods is largely divorced from material production. As a result, the "intellectual class" is dependent on all other strata of society to a much lesser extent than the ruling classes of feudal or bourgeois societies were dependent on the activities of the peasants or proletarians exploited by them. This creates the preconditions for the appearance on the historical scene of yet another class, uniting in its ranks those who are not able to actively participate in high-tech production. His share in public wealth is steadily declining, leaving no room for advanced training and replenishment of the "class of intellectuals." This social group, for the time being associated with the lower strata of the proletariat, by the beginning of the 90s acquired a pronounced class certainty, and it is impossible not to take it into account when analyzing the problems of modern society.
(B. L. Inozemtsev)
Explanation.
The correct answer should include:
Formation of the "class of intellectuals"
Reason for appearance: modern information revolution;
Consequence: the formation of a dominant class that is non-capitalist in nature leads to overcoming the class nature of society, making it classless in the long run.
Subject area: Social relations. Social stratification and mobility
Source: Unified State Exam in Social Science 06/10/2013. The main wave. Centre. Option 5.
What two criteria for distinguishing generations are the authors talking about? What, in their opinion, does the mobility of generation boundaries depend on?
Read the text and complete tasks C1-C4.
The identification of a generation as a certain social community of people is based on two interrelated moments: age differentiation of people in society and the nature of social activity. Using a demographic approach, in which “generation” is defined as the population of people of the same year of birth or the time interval between the average ages of parents and their children, it is possible to divide the population by age periods.
The age criterion is the criterion by which we, first of all, judge the belonging of an individual to a certain generation. The age limit is an objective measure due to the natural differentiation of people. It is extremely difficult to unequivocally determine the age interval of a generation. In any case, the generation and the age group are not identical. The age feature fixes the quantitative aspect, but the generations, naturally, differ not only in quantitative characteristics. The sociological concept of a generation covers several age groups. Generational boundaries are not absolute; they are mobile and depend on the period of existence of human society, life expectancy, which, in turn, is determined by socio-economic, political, historical and other factors.
A generation as a definite aggregate is a bearer of common properties and relationships. Therefore, another essential feature is the social one, which gives the generation a qualitative certainty. When we talk about the qualitative characteristics of a social attribute, we mean two points: the content of the social activity of a generation and the direction of its social actions ... People of the same generation participate in the same events and experience their influence. Of course, the attitude to these phenomena and events, and the influence of the latter on various groups of the generation are different, nevertheless, the entire generation as a whole bears the stamp of those historical events in which it was directly involved ...
The introduction of the concept of the parental generation is necessary today, in our opinion, to designate the social differentiation of the group, which in Russian sociology was called "fathers". Under the conditions of a stable hierarchy of social values, the entire adult population of the country in relation to young people - their parents, grandfathers and great-grandfathers - really fell into the group of “fathers”. Today, a radical qualitative breakdown of value systems is especially acutely manifested in the crisis of the educational function of the parental generation. The socialization of the new generation is taking place against the background of a change in the hierarchy of values, and hence the destabilization of educational guidelines in the institution of the family.
(V.V. Gavrilyuk and others.)
Explanation.
The correct answer must include:
Criteria:
1) age;
2) social
Border mobility depends on:
"from the period of existence of human society, life expectancy, which, in turn, is determined by socio-economic, political, historical and other factors."
Subject area: Social relations. Social groups
Source: Unified State Exam in Social Science 06/10/2013. The main wave. Siberia. Option 1.
List any two functions of social norms named by the author.
Read the text and complete tasks C1-C4.
Social norms are generally accepted or fairly common patterns, rules of behavior for people, means of regulating their interaction. They protect social life from chaos and drift, direct its course in the right direction. The number of social norms includes moral, legal, political, aesthetic, religious, family, corporate, customs, etc. Law was formed much later than other normative systems and mainly on their basis. It has become more rigid and purposeful in regulating economic and other relations. Historically, law arises as if to compensate for the "insufficiency" of morality, which is revealed with the emergence of private property and political power. Subsequently, the norms of law and morality were closely intertwined, interacting with other means of social regulation.<...>Therefore, it is very important to identify the close relationship between law and morality.<.. .="">
By the nature of their work, lawyers study, interpret, apply, first of all, legal norms - this is their specialty. But to assess the behavior of the subjects of legal relations and the correct resolution of emerging conflicts, they constantly turn to ethical criteria, for the basis of law is morality. Russian legal scholars have invariably emphasized that law is a legally formalized morality. Law is a means of realizing the moral and humanistic ideals of society. Law is unthinkable without lessons of morality, morality, ethics.
B.C. Solovyov, for example, defined law as "a compulsory requirement for the implementation of a minimum of good and order that does not allow for a known manifestation of evil."<...>Law and morality differ in the way they are established. Legal norms are created by the state, and only the state (or with its consent by some public organizations) are canceled, supplemented, changed. In this sense, the state is the political creator of law. Therefore, the law expresses not just the will of the people, but their state will and acts not just as a regulator, but as a special, state regulator.
Read the text and complete tasks C1-C4.
Socialization goes through stages that coincide with the so-called life cycles. They mark the most important milestones in a person's biography, which may well serve as qualitative stages in the formation of the social "I": entering a university (student life cycle), marriage (family life cycle), career choice and employment (labor cycle), military service (army cycle), retirement (retirement cycle).
Life cycles are associated with a change in social roles, with the acquisition of a new status, abandonment of previous habits, environment, friendly contacts, a change in the usual way of life.
Each time, passing to a new step, entering a new cycle, a person has to retrain a lot. This process splits into two stages, which have received special names in sociology.
Weaning from old values, norms, roles and rules of behavior is called desocialization.
The principle, according to which the development of the personality throughout life is ascending and is built on the basis of consolidating the past, is immutable. But the personality traits that were formed earlier are not unshakable. Resocialization is the assimilation of new values, roles, skills instead of the old ones, insufficiently mastered or outdated. Resocialization encompasses many activities, from classes to improve reading skills to professional retraining of workers. Psychotherapy is also a form of resocialization. Under its influence, people try to sort out their conflicts and change their behavior based on this understanding.
Desocialization and resocialization are two sides of the same process, namely, adult, or continued, socialization.
In childhood and adolescence, while an individual is brought up in a family and school, as a rule, no drastic changes in his life occur, except for divorce or death of parents, continuation of upbringing in a boarding school or orphanage. Its socialization proceeds smoothly and represents the accumulation of new knowledge, values, norms. The first major change occurs only with the entry into adulthood.
Although the process of socialization continues at this age, it changes significantly. Now desocialization and resocialization are coming to the fore. Sometimes a person finds himself in such extreme conditions, where desocialization goes so deep that it turns into the destruction of the moral foundations of the personality, and resocialization is superficial. She is not able to restore all the wealth of lost values, norms and roles.
(V. V. Kasyanov, V. N. Nechipurenko, S. I. Samygin)
Explanation.
The correct answer should contain the following elements.
1. Two sides of adult socialization are indicated:
desocialization
resocialization
2. The essence of each of them has been determined.
Desocialization is weaning from old values, norms, roles and rules of behavior.
Resocialization is the assimilation of new values, roles, skills instead of the previous ones, insufficiently mastered or outdated.
Any social movement occurs not simply in connection with the emergence of desire, but by overcoming more or less significant barriers. Even a person's moving from one place of residence to another presupposes a certain period of adaptation to new conditions.
All social movements of an individual or social group are included in the process of mobility. According to P. Sorokin's definition, “social mobility is understood as any transition of an individual, or a social object, or value, created or modified through activity, from one social position to another” ...
Society can raise the status of some individuals and lower the status of others. And this is understandable: some individuals with talent, energy, youth, must oust from higher statuses other individuals who do not possess these qualities. Depending on this, a distinction is made between upward and downward social mobility, or social upsurge and social decline. Upward currents of professional, economic and political mobility exist in two main forms: as an individual rise from the lower stratum to the higher one and as the creation of new groups of individuals with the inclusion of groups in the upper stratum next to the existing groups of this stratum or instead of them. Similarly, downward mobility exists both in the form of pushing individual individuals from high social statuses to lower ones, and in the form of lowering the social statuses of an entire group ...
In order to understand how the ascent process takes place, it is important to study how an individual can overcome barriers and boundaries between groups and rise up, i.e. to improve their social, professional, economic and political status. This desire to achieve a higher status is due to the achievement motive that each individual has to one degree or another, and is associated with his need to achieve success and avoid failures in the social aspect. The actualization of this motive ultimately generates the force with which the individual strives to achieve the highest social position or to stay on the existing one and not slide down.
(S. S. Frolov)
Explanation.
The correct answer should contain the following elements.
1) Definition of social mobility. "The transition of an individual, or a social object, or value, created or modified through activity, from one social position to another."
A huge amount of research has been devoted to analyzing the impact of certain types of television programs on the social attitudes of children and adults, but no definitive answers have been received. There is no consensus, for example, on the extent to which exposure to violence induces violent behavior in children. But there is no doubt that the mass media have a profound impact on the attitudes and worldview of people. They convey all the variety of information that cannot be obtained in any other way ...
In our time, only a small part of societies, including among traditional cultures, have remained outside the field of action of the media. Means of electronic communication are accessible even to the completely illiterate; in the most remote regions of the third world, you can often find people who have radios or televisions.
There are as many socialization agents as there are groups and social contexts in which individuals spend any significant part of their lives. Work in all cultures is the most important environment in which the process of socialization takes place, although only in industrialized societies a huge number of people "go to work", ie. spend several hours each day in a workplace separate from home. In traditional societies, many cultivate the land close to where they live or work in workshops from home. “Work” in such societies is not as distinct from other activities as is the case for most of the workforce in the West. In industrialized countries, the beginning of "going to work" implies much more changes in a person's life than the beginning of work in traditional societies. The circumstances of the work put forward unusual requirements, forcing a person to fundamentally change their worldview and behavior.
Although the local community tends to influence socialization in modern societies to a much lesser extent than in other types of social order, its influence cannot be completely ruled out. Even in large cities there are highly developed groups and organizations of residents (voluntary societies, clubs, churches), which have a huge impact on the thoughts and actions of those who take part in their activities.
A. Giddens
Explanation.
Three groups of socialization agents should be named in the correct answer:
1) mass media (printed publications, electronic means of communication, certain types of television programs);
2) work (labor collective, work circumstances);
3) highly developed groups and organizations of residents (local community, voluntary societies, clubs, churches).
Read the text and complete tasks C1-C4.
Sociology has many practical influences on our lives. Sociological thinking and research contribute to practical policy and social reform in several ways. The most direct way is to provide a clearer or more accurate understanding of the social situation. This can be done either at the level of factual knowledge, or by gaining a more accurate understanding of why something is happening (in other words, by means of theoretical justification). For example, research can show that a much larger proportion of the population lives in poverty than is commonly believed. Any attempt to improve living standards is more likely to succeed if it is based on accurate and not erroneous information. The more we know about why poverty remains pervasive, the more likely it is that effective action will be taken against it.
A second way that sociology can contribute to practical politics is by helping to foster greater cultural sensitivity towards different groups in society. Sociological research allows us to look at the social world as a diversity of cultural perspectives, and this helps to eliminate the prejudices of different groups towards each other. You cannot be considered an enlightened politician without a developed understanding of differences in cultural values. Practical politics, which is not based on an awareness of the lifestyle of those to whom it is oriented, has little chance of success ...
Third, sociological research is of practical importance in assessing the results of political initiatives. The program of practical transformation may not achieve the goals set by its creators, or entail a series of unforeseen consequences of an undesirable nature ...
Fourthly, and, perhaps, this is the most important thing, sociology can give social groups a more enlightened idea of themselves, increase their self-understanding. The more people know about the conditions of their own activities, about how society functions, the more likely they will be able to influence the circumstances of their own lives. It would be misleading to think of the practical role of sociology only as helping politicians or power groups make informed decisions ... Highly self-aware groups can effectively respond to the actions of government officials and other influential persons, and can also put forward their own political initiatives.
A. Giddens
Explanation.
The correct answer must contain the following elements:
1) two spheres (areas, directions):
- practical policy;
- social reforms;
2) the answer to the second question: this can be done either at the level of factual knowledge, or by acquiring a more correct understanding of why something is happening (in other words, by means of theoretical justification).
(The answer to the second question can be given in a different formulation, which is similar in meaning.)
Subject area: Social relations. Social groups, Man and society. The science
In the course of the development of democratic and market reforms, the social stratification of Russian society has undergone a significant transformation.
Firstly, the very nature of the stratification system has radically changed. If in Soviet society the features of a statocratic system built on power hierarchies and formal ranks prevailed, then in modern Russian society the formulation of a stratification system takes place on an economic basis, when the main criteria are the level of income, ownership of property and the ability to carry out independent economic activities.
Secondly, a fairly numerous entrepreneurial stratum has developed, the top representatives of which not only constitute a significant part of the economic and economic elite, but in some cases are also included in the country's political elite. One can evaluate the essence, composition and structure of this stratum in different ways, but one cannot fail to see that the transition to a market economy has generated qualitatively new status groups that have economic freedom and claim the highest places in the system of social hierarchy.
Thirdly, in the course of the reforms, new prestigious types of activity appeared, which markedly changed the social and professional stratification system. Thus, the prestige of entrepreneurial, commercial, financial and banking, managerial, legal and some other types of activities (advertising, marketing, real estate transactions, etc.) has sharply increased.
Fourth, a polar stratification of society has been outlined, which is reflected in the growing differentiation of incomes of the population. So, if shortly before the collapse of the Soviet state the decile coefficient (the ratio of average incomes of 10% of the poorest and 10% of the richest strata of the population) was equal to five, then in 1997 it increased to twelve, and now - to twenty-five.
Fifth, Despite the significant social polarity of society, a middle class begins to form, the core of which is formed by highly productive, proactive and enterprising social categories (entrepreneurs, managers, businessmen, farmers, representatives of the scientific and technical intelligentsia, highly qualified workers, etc.). The middle class determines the stability of the social system and at the same time ensures its dynamic development. He is interested in the implementation of economic reforms and acts as a subject of technological modernization and political democratization of society.
The issues of social stratification differentiation are in the center of attention of Russian sociologists. A variety of theoretical schemes are proposed to explain the stratification of modern Russian society. The most recognized was the stratification model developed by Academician T.I. Zaslavskaya on the basis of data obtained in the course of monitoring studies conducted by the All-Russian Center for the Study of Public Opinion (VTsIOM) in the mid-1990s.
In the stratification structure of modern Russian society, T. I. Zaslavskaya identified four layers: upper, middle, base and lower.
Upper layer (6% of the employed population) form elite and sub-elite groups that occupy important positions in the public administration system, in economic and security structures. These are political leaders, the top of the state apparatus, a significant part of the generals, heads of industrial corporations and banks, successful entrepreneurs and businessmen, prominent figures in science and culture. The upper layer is almost 90% represented by young and middle-aged men. This is the most educated stratum: two thirds of its representatives have a higher education. The income level of this stratum is 10 times higher than that of the lower stratum and 6-7 times higher than that of the basic stratum.
Thus, the upper stratum has the most powerful economic and intellectual potential and has the ability to directly influence the reform processes.
Middle layer (18% of the employed population) consists of small and medium-sized entrepreneurs, semi-entrepreneurs, managers of medium and small enterprises, representatives of the middle level of the state apparatus, administrators of the non-production sphere, senior officers, persons of intellectual professions, farmers, the most qualified workers and employees. Almost 60% of them are employed in the private sector. Most of them are also men, mostly of middle age. The level of education of representatives of this stratum is significantly higher than the national average, but somewhat lower than in the upper stratum. In terms of income, the middle stratum is significantly inferior to the upper stratum and, accordingly, its social well-being is noticeably worse. Despite the fact that most representatives of the middle stratum do not have either sufficient capital, or a level of professionalism that fully meets modern requirements, or high social prestige, sociologists regard this stratum of Russian society as the embryo of a middle class in its Western understanding.
Base layer (66% of the employed population) includes people employed primarily in the public sector of the economy. It includes industrial workers, a significant part of the intelligentsia (specialists), semi-intelligentsia (assistants to specialists), employees from technical personnel, the bulk of the military, workers in the mass trade and service professions, as well as a large part of the peasantry. About 60% of this stratum are women, mostly middle-aged and older. Only 25% of its representatives have higher education. The standard of living of this stratum, which was previously low, has been steadily declining in recent years: 44% of its representatives live below the poverty line. Although the needs, interests and value orientations of the groups that make up the base stratum are very different, their model of behavior during the transition period is quite similar: it is an adaptation to changing conditions in order to survive and, if possible, maintain the achieved status.
bottom layer (10% of the employed population) has the lowest professional qualification and labor potential. It includes workers engaged in the simplest types of work that do not require professional knowledge (cleaners, lifters, watchmen, couriers, auxiliary workers, riggers, etc.). More than 40% of them are employed in industrial sectors and 25% in trade and services. Two thirds of this stratum are women, and the proportion of older people is three times higher than the national average. These social categories are characterized by an extremely low standard of living: 2/3 live below the poverty line, of which a quarter - below the poverty line. Most of the representatives of this stratum are against reforms, and 1/3 believes that the country needs a dictatorship.
Along with these basic strata, T. I. Zaslavskaya also notes the presence of a "social bottom", which is formed by alcoholics, homeless people, vagabonds, criminals, etc. However, it was not possible to empirically identify these groups, which is due to their desocialization, isolation from society, and involvement in various criminal and semi-criminal structures.
A somewhat different model of the stratification system of modern Russian society is proposed by the famous sociologist M.N. Rimashevskaya, who distinguishes the following social-class groups:
- - "all-Russian elite groups" possessing large property and means of power influence at the federal level;
- - "regional and corporate elites" with significant ownership and influence at the level of regions and sectors of the economy;
- - the "upper middle class", which has property and incomes that provide Western standards of command and claims to improve social status;
- - a "dynamic middle class" that is socially active and has incomes that ensure the average Russian and higher consumption standards;
- - "outsiders", characterized by low social activity, low income levels and an orientation towards legal methods of obtaining them;
"marginalized", characterized by a low degree of social adaptation, low incomes and instability of the socio-economic situation;
- "criminal elements" showing high social activity, but contrary to the moral and legal norms of society.
The above concepts of social stratification of modern Russian society do not exhaust the diversity of points of view on this issue. Interesting results were obtained in the course of studies carried out on the issues of social differentiation in different regions of the country. The discussion continues on the problems of the formation of the middle class in Russia. And this is quite understandable, because the stratification profile of our society is mobile, changing depending on many factors - the rise or fall of production, the restructuring of the economy, technological renewal, the emergence of new prestigious professions, etc. The need for a sociological explanation of these rapidly developing processes will continue to stimulate the study of various aspects of the stratification of Russian society.
Sociologists point out an important difference between action goals - when we intentionally do something - and unintended consequences, to which actions lead. By following this path, you can learn a lot about the development of societies. For example, schools exist to enable children to acquire new knowledge. However, the existence of schools has consequences that are not easy to recognize or foresee. Until a certain age, the school does not allow children to enter the labor market. The school system also exacerbates inequality by predicting students' future jobs according to their academic performance.
Most of the major changes in history were probably unintentional. Before the 1917 revolution, various political groups in Russia tried to overthrow the existing regime. However, none of them, including the Bolshevik Party, which eventually came to power, could foresee the actual revolutionary process that took place. A series of minor tensions and confrontations have spawned a process of social transformation that is far more radical than anyone expected.
Sometimes actions taken with a specific goal have consequences that actually impede the achievement of that goal. For example, a few years ago in New York, laws were passed requiring owners of houses in disrepair and located in areas with a population with low incomes to bring these houses to a certain minimum standard. The purpose of the law is to improve the basic level of housing of low-income members of society. The result is the opposite. The owners of dilapidated buildings either abandoned them altogether or adapted them for other purposes; thus, the number of habitable houses has dropped significantly. Similar examples can be found by looking at the problem of prisons and insane asylums. Over the past few years, in Britain and some other Western countries, the process of isolating people from society has been partially changed. Some of the inhabitants of prisons and psychiatric hospitals were released to live in the outside world - thus the public concern for the mentally ill was shown. The result, however, turned out to be the opposite of that expected by the liberal reformers who supported the innovation. Many former patients of psychiatric hospitals found themselves in utter poverty, they could not adapt to the new environment. The consequences of this decision were dire for many.
Continuity and change in social life can be thought of as a “mixture” of the intentional and unintended consequences of human actions.
(33 pages) The task of sociology is to investigate the resulting balance between social reproduction and transformation. Social reproduction shows how societies "sustain their lives" over time, transformation refers to the changes that societies are subject to. Society is not a mechanical device, like a clock or a motor, that “keeps it going” because it has a built-in power source. Social reproduction is a consequence of the continuity of actions that people perform from day to day and from year to year, as well as the continuity of various social practices that people follow. Change occurs partly in accordance with the intentions of the people who make it, and partly, as the example of the 1917 revolution shows, as a result of consequences that no one wanted or foreseen.
What can sociology say about our actions?
As individuals, we all know quite a lot about ourselves and about the society in which we live. We are used to thinking that we understand well why we act this way and not otherwise, and do not need tips from sociologists! And to some extent this is true. Many of the things we do in our daily lives are driven by our own understanding of existing social conventions. And yet there are certain boundaries of such self-knowledge, and one of the main tasks of sociology is to show that they are.
Based on the discussion that follows, we should be able to shed light on the nature of these limitations with relative ease. As we have said, people make a lot of common sense judgments about themselves and others that are wrong, incomplete, or poorly informed. Sociological research helps us define the boundaries of our social judgments and at the same time adjusts our knowledge about ourselves and our social environment. Another significant contribution of sociology lies in the assertion that, although we all understand most of what we do and why, we often have a rather poor idea of the consequences of our actions. The unintended and unforeseen consequences of actions affect all aspects and contexts of social life. Sociological analysis explores the subtle and subtle connection between intentional and unintentional phenomena in the social world.
Social structure and human action
An important concept that helps our understanding of social connections is the concept social structure. The social environment in which we exist is not simply a jumbled collection of events and actions. In the behavior of people, in the relationships in which they enter, certain deep regularities are observed. Connected with these regularities is the idea of social structure. To some extent, the structural characteristics of society are conveniently described by analogy with the design of a building. The building has walls, a floor and a roof that give it a specific shape. But the given metaphor should not be taken too literally, it can lead away from the essence of the matter. Social structures are defined by human actions and relationships; the stability of structures, their completeness are determined by their repeatability in time and space. Thus, within the framework of the sociological approach, the ideas of social (34p) reproduction and social structure are extremely closely related. Therefore, we can understand human societies like buildings that are recreated at every moment using the very bricks of which they were composed. All our actions are influenced by the structural characteristics of the societies in which we grew up and live, and at the same time, through our actions, we ourselves create (and also to some extent change) these structural characteristics.
Development of a sociological worldview
Teaching sociological thinking means developing the power of the imagination. The study of sociology cannot take place as a routine process of acquiring knowledge. A sociologist is a person who is able to free himself from immediate personal circumstances. The work of a sociologist, as Charles Wright Mills famously put it, depends on "Sociological imagination" 6). Most sociology textbooks draw attention to this term. But, unlike Mills himself, they usually use it completely without any imagination.
Sociological imagination first of all presupposes the ability to "detach" from the usual routine of our daily life in order to look at it in a new way. Consider the simplest act of drinking a cup of coffee. What can be said from a sociological point of view about such an apparently insignificant fragment of our behavior? The answer is enormous.
First of all, it can be pointed out that coffee is not only a drink that helps maintain the necessary supply of fluid. It has a symbolic meaning as one of the daily social rituals. Moreover, the ritual associated with drinking coffee is more important than the actual act of consuming the drink. For example, two people about to “have a cup of coffee” are likely more passionate about the meeting and the opportunity to chat than the drink. Eating and drinking in all societies is an opportunity for social interaction and ritual, and therefore they represent a rich topic for sociological research.
Second, coffee is a caffeine-containing drug that has a stimulating effect on the brain. Coffee drinkers are not perceived as "addicts" by most Westerners. Why this is so is an interesting sociological question. Like alcohol, coffee is a “socially acceptable” drug, but marijuana, for example, is not. However, there are cultures that tolerate marijuana consumption but reject coffee and alcohol. (For further discussion of these issues, see Chapter 5, “Conformity and Deviant Behavior.”)
Third, behind a cup of coffee is a network of complex social and economic relationships that span the world. The production, delivery and sale of coffee requires continuous economic operations involving many people thousands of miles away from coffee drinkers. The study of such global interactions is an important task of sociology, since many aspects of our life today depend on world trade exchange and relations.
Finally, behind the act of enjoying a cup of coffee is a process of social and economic development that has taken place. Coffee, like many other foods now familiar to the West, such as tea, bananas, potatoes and sugar, became widely used only since the 19th century. Although coffee came from the Middle East (35 pages), the beginning of its mass consumption is the period of Western colonial expansion, about one and a half centuries ago. Virtually all coffee consumed in Western countries today comes from South America and Africa, which were formerly colonies of Europeans.
The development of the sociological imagination means the use of materials not only from sociology, but also anthropology(study of traditional societies) and history. The anthropological direction is extremely important for the development of the sociological imagination, because it allows us to see a kaleidoscope of different forms of social life. By comparing them to our own lives, we learn more about the unique characteristics of our behavior. The historical direction of the sociological imagination is just as fundamental: we can only comprehend the special nature of our modern world if we compare it with the past. The past is a mirror, looking into which the sociologist can understand the present. In each of these cases, it implies a "detachment" from our own customs and habits - for a deeper understanding of them.
Yet Mills' main emphasis was on another aspect of the sociological imagination - our possibilities for the future. Sociology not only helps us analyze existing types of social life, but also allows us to see the “possible future” open to us. The free striving of sociological thought provides an opportunity to penetrate into the essence of not only what is happening, but also what can happen if we act in any way. Our attempts to influence the future will be in vain if they are not based on a developed sociological understanding of existing trends.
Is sociology a science?
Sociology ranks first in a group of disciplines (including anthropology, economics, and political science) commonly referred to as social sciences. But can we really study the social life of people in a “scientific” way? To answer this question, it is necessary to consider the main characteristics of science as a form of intellectual activity. What is the science?
Science is the use of systematic research methods, theoretical thinking and logical assessment of arguments in order to develop knowledge about a particular subject. Scientific work consists of a mixture of very bold thinking and careful selection of data to prove or disprove hypotheses and theories. Information and insights obtained from scientific research and discussion are always to some extent preliminary and open to revision, and in some cases even to completely abandon them.
When we ask “is sociology a science,” we mean two things: “can this discipline be structured according to the procedures of the natural sciences” and “can sociology achieve the same level of accurate and well-founded knowledge that the natural sciences have developed in relation to the physical world ”. These points have always been somewhat controversial, but for a long time most sociologists answered them in the affirmative. They believed that sociology can and should be likened to natural sciences both in its procedures and in the nature of the data obtained (the point of view, sometimes called positivism).
Now this view looks naive. Like other social “sciences”, sociology is a scientific discipline in the sense that it has (36 pages) systematic methods of collecting and analyzing data, methods of evaluating theories in the light of evidence and logical arguments. However, the study of human beings is different from the study of events in the physical world, and therefore neither the logical framework nor the conclusions of sociology can be correctly understood in simple comparisons with natural science. In the study of social life, the sociologist is confronted with actions, significant for the people who commit them. Unlike objects of nature, people have self-knowledge, they see meaning and purpose in what they do. It is impossible to accurately describe social life if we do not first of all grasp the meaning that people put into their activities. For example, to describe death as “suicide,” you need to have knowledge of what intentions the person had at the time of death. “Suicide” takes place only if the individual actively seeks self-destruction. A person who accidentally steps under a car and dies cannot be considered a suicide; death was not his goal.
The fact that we cannot study human beings in exactly the same way as objects of nature, on the one hand gives sociology advantages, and on the other, creates difficulties that natural scientists do not have. The advantage is that sociologists can ask questions of those they study - other human beings. On the other hand, people who know that their actions are being scrutinized often begin to behave differently. For example, when an individual fills out a questionnaire, he can consciously or unconsciously give an idea of himself that is different from the real one. He may even try to “help” the researcher by giving the answers he thinks are expected of him.
Objectivity
In their research and theoretical quest, sociologists try to be impartial, trying to study the world without bias. A good sociologist takes every opportunity to cast aside prejudices that can get in the way of an unbiased assessment of ideas or facts. But no one can be completely impartial in all respects, and it is very difficult to develop an impartial view of controversial subjects. but objectivity does not depend exclusively, and even primarily, on the worldview of a certain researcher. It is based on observation and argumentation methods. The public nature of the discipline is important here. Since the findings and reports of researchers are available for review, being published in the form of articles, monographs and books, certain conclusions can be verified. Assertions made on the basis of research results can be critically assessed, and the personal inclinations of the researcher are ignored by others.
Thus, objectivity in sociology is achieved through mutual criticism of members of the sociological community. Many topics studied in sociology are very controversial, since they directly affect the disputes and conflicts that arise in society itself. But through public debate, with careful examination of the evidence and the logical structure of arguments, such problems can be explored effectively and fruitfully7).
The practical importance of sociology
Understanding social situations
Sociology has many practical influences on our lives. Sociological thinking and research contribute to practical policy and social reform in several ways. The most direct way is to provide a clearer or more accurate understanding of the social situation. This can be done either at the level of factual knowledge, or by gaining a more accurate understanding of why something is happening (in other words, through theoretical justification). For example, research can show that a much larger proportion of the population lives in poverty than is commonly believed. Any attempt to improve living standards is more likely to succeed if it is based on accurate and not erroneous information. The more we know about why poverty remains pervasive, the more likely it is that effective action will be taken against it.
Sensitivity to cultural differences
A second way that sociology can contribute to practical politics is by helping to foster greater cultural sensitivity towards different groups in society. Sociological research allows us to look at the social world as a diversity of cultural perspectives, and this helps to eliminate the prejudices of different groups towards each other. One cannot be considered an enlightened politician without a developed understanding of differences in cultural values. Practical policies that are not based on the lifestyle awareness of those they target have little chance of success. Thus, a white social worker working in the West Indian sector of a British city will not earn the trust of its inhabitants if he does not develop a sensitivity to the cultural differences that often divide blacks and whites in Britain.
Assessing the results of political action
Third, sociological research is of practical importance in assessing the results of political initiatives. A transformational change program may not achieve the goals set by its creators, or entail a series of unforeseen consequences of an undesirable nature. For example, in the post-war years, large communal houses were built in many countries in the central areas of cities. It was intended to raise living standards for low-income groups living in slums; here it was planned to place various trade and consumer services. However, research has shown that many of those who have moved from their previous homes to larger homes feel isolated and unhappy. High-rise buildings and shopping areas quickly fell into disrepair and became breeding grounds for gang hooliganism and other serious crimes.
Deepening self-knowledge
Fourthly, and, perhaps, this is the most important thing, sociology can give social groups a more enlightened idea of themselves, increase their self-understanding (38 pages). The more people know about the conditions of their own activities, about how society functions, the more likely they will be able to influence the circumstances of their own lives. It would be wrong to think of the practical role of sociology only as helping politicians or power groups make informed decisions. Those in power cannot always be expected to care for the interests of the underprivileged. Highly self-aware groups can effectively respond to the actions of government officials and other influencers, and can also put forward their own political initiatives. Self-help groups (such as Alcoholics Anonymous) and social movements (such as women's movements) are examples of social associations directly advocating for practical reform (see Chapter 9, Groups and Organizations).
The role of the sociologist in society
Should sociologists themselves actively defend and promote programs of practical change and social change? Some argue that sociology can be objectivity only if sociologists remain neutral on moral and political issues, but there is no reason to think that scholars who eschew public debate are necessarily more objective in assessing sociological issues. There is an obvious link between studying sociology and the awakening of social consciousness. Not a single person, wise by the experience of sociology, will remain indifferent to the inequality that exists in the world today, the lack of social justice in many situations, or the lack of rights of millions of people. It would be strange if sociologists did not participate in practical activities, and it would be illogical and impractical to try to prevent them from using their sociological experience.
Final comments
In this chapter, we have viewed sociology as a discipline characterized by the discarding of personal subjective views of the world in order to study more closely the influences that determine our life and the lives of others. Sociology as a special intellectual occupation emerged in the early period of development of modern industrial societies, and the study of such societies remains of fundamental importance. But sociologists also deal with a wide range of problems related to the nature of social interaction and human societies in general. In the next chapter we will turn to the diversity of human culture and see the striking contrast in the customs and habits of different peoples. To do this, we need to go on a round-the-world cultural expedition. On an intellectual level, we will repeat the voyages that Christopher Columbus, Captain Cook and other adventurers have undertaken, embarking on their perilous journeys around the globe. However, as sociologists, we cannot look at them only from the point of view of travelers - as voyages of "discoverers", since these expeditions entailed a process of Western expansion, which had a dramatic impact on other cultures and subsequent world social development.
(39 pages)
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Summary
Sociology can be defined as the systematic study of human societies, with particular emphasis on modern industrial systems. Sociology arose out of attempts to understand the broad changes that have taken place in human societies over the past two to three centuries. Among the most important features of the modern social world, such as industrialization, urbanism and new types of political systems are noted. The changes that have taken place were not just large-scale. Great shifts have also taken place in the more intimate and personal characteristics of people's lives. An example of this is the growing role of romantic love as the foundation of marriage. Sociologists study social life by asking certain questions and trying to find answers to them in the course of systematic research. These questions can be factual, comparative, developmental, or theoretical. In sociological research, it is important to distinguish between intentional and unintended results of human actions. Engaging in sociology involves the ability to think with imagination and detach from preconceived notions of social relations. Sociology is closely related to other social sciences. All social sciences are concerned with human behavior, but concentrate their attention on different aspects of it. The links between sociology, anthropology and history are especially important. Sociology is a science in the sense that it uses systematic research methods and constructs theories based on available facts and logical reasoning. But it cannot be directly compared to the natural sciences, because the study of human behavior is fundamentally different from the study of the natural world. Sociologists strive to be objective in their study of the social world, trying to approach research with an open mind. Objectivity does not depend on the inclinations of a particular researcher, but on the public assessment of research and theory, and this is an essential feature of sociology as a scientific discipline. Sociology is a discipline with important practical applications. Her contributions to social criticism and practical social reform go in several directions. First, a better understanding of social circumstances often gives us the chance to better control them. Second, sociology contributes to the growth of our cultural sensitivity, allowing any political action to take into account differences in cultural values. Third, we can assess the consequences (intentional and unintentional) of the adoption of certain political programs. Finally, and perhaps most importantly, sociology promotes self-knowledge by providing groups and individuals with greater opportunities to change their conditions of life.
(40 pages)
Basic concepts
sociology science
social structure objectivity
The most important terms
representation based social reproduction
in common sense
factual issues social transformation
comparative questions sociological imagination
developmental issues anthropology
empirical research positivism
theoretical questions meaningful actions
unintended consequences of self-knowledge
(41 pages)
6) Mills C. Wright. The Sociological Imagination. Hannondsworth, 1970.
7) Habermas Jurgen. Communication and the Evolution of Society. Cambridge, 1979.
In this part of the book, we begin our exploration of the diverse world of sociology. We will look at the relationship between individual development and culture, analyze the main types of societies in which people live today and lived in the past. Our personality and worldview are strongly influenced by the culture and society in which we exist. At the same time, with our daily activities, we actively recreate and change the cultural and social contexts in which we operate.
In the first chapter of this part (chapter 2; we explore the unity and diversity of human culture. We will consider in what ways people are similar to animals and how they differ from them, we will analyze a number of differences that exist in different human cultures. The degree of cultural differences should be considered as the result of changes that have actually transformed or destroyed many cultures that have existed until now.The general picture of these changes is reconstructed, and the main types of dominant societies in the world are given in contrast to those that preceded them.
The next chapter (Chapter 3) discusses socialization. The process by which the infant develops into a social being is especially considered. Adaptation to life in society, to a certain extent, continues throughout the life of an individual, therefore, the study of socialization also includes an analysis of generational change - changes in relations between young people, adults and the elderly.
In Chapter 4, we explore how people interact with each other in everyday life by looking at the subtle yet extremely important mechanisms by which individuals interpret each other's actions and statements. The study of social interaction can tell us a lot about the broader social environments in which we live.
Chapter 5 brings us to a discussion of more general social processes, and it begins with an examination of deviant behavior and crime. By analyzing exceptions - people whose behavior deviates from generally accepted norms - we can better understand the behavior of the majority.
The final chapter of this part (Chapter 6) discusses gender issues and analyzes the impact of changing social conditions on the position of men and women in modern societies. This chapter also includes an exploration of the nature of sexuality, with particular attention to the factors that determine types of sexual behavior.
(42 pages)
Chapter 2. Culture and Society
Meeting of cultures
About half a century ago, the inhabitants of some islands in the western Pacific began to build complex and large wooden aircraft models. Hours of painstaking labor were spent on their manufacture, although none of the islanders had ever seen an airplane up close. The models were not supposed to fly, they were the center of a religious cult invented by local prophets. Religious leaders announced that if certain rites were performed, a "load" would come from heaven. The cargo was goods that people from the West brought to the islands for themselves. Then the whites will disappear, and the ancestors of the aborigines will return to them. The islanders believed that if the rituals were strictly observed, a new era would come when they could enjoy the material benefits of the white invaders, while maintaining the same way of life1).
Why did “cargo cults” arise? They were the result of a clash between the traditional beliefs and customs of the islanders and the way of life brought from the West. The wealth and power of the whites were clearly visible, and the islanders decided that the sources of the benefits that the aliens enjoyed were those very incomprehensible flying objects. From the point of view of the islanders, it was quite logical to try to gain power over the planes through special ritual actions. At the same time, they sought to preserve their own customs and protect them from alien interference.
The islanders' knowledge of Western lifestyle and Western technology was weak; they interpreted the actions of Europeans in terms of their own beliefs and ideas about the world. In this respect, their reactions were similar to those found in virtually all of early and medieval history. Even people from the largest civilizations of the past had a very vague idea of the life of other peoples. In the 16th and 17th centuries, when Western merchants and adventurers traveled to distant corners of the globe, they perceived all those they came in contact with as “barbarians” or “savages”.
The majority of Russians and Poles living in Lithuania emphasize their belonging and loyalty to Lithuania, according to scientists from the Institute for Ethnic Research of the Center for Social Research. According to them, the basis of civic loyalty is not ethnicity, but education, income, social and economic situation.
Scientists are also unpleasantly surprised by the statement of the former head of the State Security Department Gediminas Gryna, in which he called the schools of national minorities "ghettos of the educational system" and proposed to close them. Meanwhile, the chairman of the Supreme Council-Restoration Seimas of Lithuania, Vytautas Landsbergis, resolved this issue much more successfully and far-sighted.
Creates tension
"Public statements of politicians and other persons in the media are often aimed at generalization, division into us-they, friend-foe. Our studies have shown that this division is usually artificial, the boundaries between social groups are changing, often blurred," said a researcher at the Institute Ethnic Studies Center for Social Research Kristina Shlyaivaite.
In her opinion, generalized public statements about, say, Visaginas, where national minorities live, or about schools of national minorities create unnecessary tension in society.
Hang out with your colleagues in 2012-2014. carried out a qualitative sociological study, during which she clarified the identity of the ethnic groups of the region. She got the impression that the people of the region follow the media closely and are very sensitive to public news.
The researcher relied on the latest social theories, according to which, departments and their policies have a great influence on identity. The scientist visited the schools of Šalčininkai, Švenčionis, Pabrade and Eisiskes. It is schools that form national identity, solidarity with the general public. “It does not mean at all that schools in Russian or Polish language of instruction bring up some non-civilian or disloyal citizens. One must be careful with such statements,” the interlocutor warned.
In many places in the region, the majority of the inhabitants are Poles, there are schools for ethnic minorities or classes for children of ethnic minorities.
The interlocutor noted that all schools are attended by children of different ethnic groups and different linguistic backgrounds. Thus, children from mixed families study in Lithuanian schools, and children from different ethnic families are also found in Russian or Polish schools.
Moved to another school due to ridicule
“I boldly declare this is Lithuania,” said the doctor of sciences, denying the words of politicians that the southeastern region of Lithuania is not Lithuania. "It is interesting that children from the same family who were born at different times can go to different schools, for example, the youngest - to the Lithuanian, and the older - to the Polish, or something like that. Why? The decision of people is rational, meaningful", - said Shlyaivaite ...
People, whose children attend Polish schools, emphasize mainly that it is important for them to preserve and form ethnic identity. Psychological comfort is also important - if they speak Polish at home, it is also more convenient to speak Polish at school. “In fact, everyone, along with this priority, emphasized that, in the opinion of the parents, they teach the Lithuanian language well in Polish schools. This is also important for them,” the researcher said. This shows that people understand the importance of the Lithuanian language and want to learn it.
During the interview, a case was mentioned when children from a Lithuanian school went to a school of ethnic minorities because of ridicule - for example, classmates called Russian children Muscovites. Children of different nationalities also want to go to Lithuanian schools. By the way, there are much fewer Russian schools in the southeastern region.
"The idea that if you send your child to a Polish school, he will not know Lithuanian, he will be disloyal, he will not be able to make a career - this is a stereotype, the residents themselves usually believe that knowledge of several languages - native, Lithuanian and English - only improves the opportunity to make a career." , - said Shlyavaite.
By the way, most of the representatives of the younger generation who graduated from the school of national minorities spoke the state language well with the researcher.
The interlocutor admitted that until she herself visited this region, she had certain stereotypes - questions arose whether she would be able to agree in Lithuanian. All stereotypes have collapsed. A concrete example - during an interview, a girl said that she is Polish, loves Polish culture and participates in various events. Shit saw the icon of the Lithuanian flag invented by the girl.
“I noticed that she spoke Polish very beautifully, spoke well about the Polish language and culture, but wore a yellow-red-green badge. She said that she was a civil Lithuanian, a Polish woman living here, and Lithuania was her homeland ", - said Shlyavayte.
Saved by Landsbergis' discernment
Monika Freyute-Rakauskienė, a researcher at the Institute for Ethnic Studies, sociologist, noted that politicians often talk about imaginary or obvious manifestations of disloyalty in Lithuanian society, certain threats to the security and territorial integrity of the country.
"But this should not automatically be associated with the ethnic factor, the largest groups - Poles, Russians - or regions and cities densely populated by these ethnic groups," the interlocutor said.
Freiute-Rakauskienė noted that in such statements, attention is usually paid to the southeastern part of Lithuania, as well as Visaginas. “It should be mentioned that civic loyalty is not determined by ethnicity, but by education, income, social and economic situation and other factors,” she said.
She recalled that in 1990 in the Lithuanian press in Russian, the then head of Lithuania Vytautas Landsbergis constantly made statements in which he asked citizens to remain united so that there would be no tension on ethnic grounds. Then it was necessary for the society to be united and undivided. Today, the sociologist believes, there is a lack of such statements from the lips of politicians - more often than not, tension-causing statements are heard.
Reacting to talk about the absence of civic identity, the sociologist draws attention to the fact that identity is not a constant and stable moment. "This is a process, it is changing, people can have different identities. It is not necessary that a person who identifies himself with Poles and considers himself a Pole does not have a civic identity. They do not interfere with each other, at the same time people can have several identities," she said Freute-Rakauskiene.
According to the sociologist, the study of the identity of ethnic groups in Lithuania, carried out in 2012-2014, showed that people identify themselves with different national groups. Despite this, the vast majority of the investigated informants were distinguished by their civic identity. They emphasized their belonging and loyalty to Lithuania.
According to the sociologist, residents of southeastern Lithuania identify themselves with the Vilnius region. Most of all, this concerns older and middle-aged informants.
“We need to understand why people identify with the place in which they live. This can be explained taking into account the historical and political context, because in the XX century the borders of the state changed several times, along with them political and cultural things changed. The challenges affected the manifestation of the identity of the inhabitants of this region, created the preconditions for it to remain a kind of border region, in which different linguistic, cultural or religious traditions coexisted, as well as the development of features of local or regional identity, ”said Freiute-Rakauskienė.
According to the sociologist, the diversity of the manifestation of the identity of the inhabitants of this region should be understood as a unique phenomenon that enriches the cultural values of the whole Lithuania.
In her opinion, it is very important that state departments and political parties pay attention to this region, economic and social problems that are urgent for it. This would allow its residents to successfully integrate into Lithuanian society, strengthen civic identity, and suppress the action of political forces that are sowing discord. After all, the study showed that there is no ethnic tension among the residents.
The sociologist noted that people emphasize that they communicate with neighbors of different nationalities, speak different languages, and this does not pose any problem. But tension is created in public discourse, people notice it and evaluate it negatively.
Some experts call the problem of the poor in Russia "paradoxical" - because a large part of the poor are working people. And not just workers, but those employed in skilled labor: teachers, doctors, skilled industrial workers and others. These people are on the staff of an organization or enterprise, have a full-time job, but their labor is paid so poorly that there is not enough money to provide any decent existence. At the same time, they cannot find another job for various reasons.
The interviewed representatives of regional elites and focus group participants discussed how these people are trying to survive in modern conditions and what steps they expect from the authorities. Discussions about ways to solve the problem of the "working poor" concern three actors: the state, entrepreneurs and workers themselves.
The experts were asked to roughly determine what proportion of the working population in their region can be called poor. The rates range from 10 to 90%. These are subjective assessments, which are influenced both by the perception of poverty criteria and the actual differences in the material situation of people in different regions. On the whole, most of the participants in the expert survey say that about a third of the working poor where they live. Among the most disadvantaged are workers in defense enterprises, culture, middle and junior service personnel, teachers, agricultural workers, employees of small enterprises (private shops or workshops).
- “The working poor are most often in the field of small business. Because there people are least protected by trade unions - or rather, there are none at all - and everything depends on the decency of the owner. poor workers. On the one hand, they are poor, and on the other hand, completely powerless for various reasons " (expert, Tambov).
- “It’s shameless to pay so low for teachers, doctors, educators, educators, those who work in sports schools, and so on. People work on sheer enthusiasm, and they also have problems. Although they are embarrassed to identify themselves as poor, but where are they? something on the verge " (expert, Kemerovo).
- "We have a pulp and paper mill in the town of Sokol, more than two thousand people work there - now half of the team may be on the street. And people received their January salary - 300 rubles each." (expert, Vologda).
-
1st participant: If we take a developed capitalist state, then even a cleaning lady does not live poorly there.
1st participant: That is, they do not live poorly. It depends on the organization of the state.
2nd participant: I know that in Germany young guys collect garbage in garbage bags at 10 o'clock in the evening - they get $ 2,000.
1st participant: My profession is a doctor. I don’t work as a doctor because I don’t earn anything. To support my family, I am engaged in trade.
2nd participant: I know many doctors who quit this profession ... "(DFG, Samara).
Deprofessionalization, abandonment of skilled labor in favor of unskilled labor is one of the survival strategies of the working poor, noted by both experts and focus group participants.
-
DFG participant: You need to break your character a little after all. My friend took a chance - she went as a nanny. She has a higher education ...
DFG participant: Wonderful!"(DFG, Moscow).
The remark about the need to "break your character" suggests that in a situation of choice between loyalty to a profession, to a job you love and the need to change life for the sake of the material well-being of a family, there is reflection on the status of various professional occupations, as well as a value conflict when it is necessary to make a choice. In this case, the decision of the person to abandon the profession is approved. But this decision is forced, associated with the rejection of the usual social environment, profession, and, accordingly, from possible career prospects, with the need to master new ones that do not always correspond to ideas about the proper rules of behavior. Therefore, those who do not want to take such a step for material gain are also not condemned.
-
1st participant: Either there is no other work, or age does not allow, or inertia. Again, sociability. Many are accustomed to working in one place. It's like a character trait.
Mass rejection of skilled labor can solve the problems of individual families in the short term, but for society as a whole in the long term, it is dangerous, since it leads to the fact that the country's economy becomes uncompetitive. Focus group participants, thinking about this way of solving the problem of poverty, understand this.
-
1st participant: The reason for poverty is that they cannot leave work, they clung to it ... You can find another job.
Another of the most frequently mentioned strategies for increasing incomes for able-bodied citizens is the transition to a subsistence economy.
- "We have piled up snow today - everyone is waiting for the flood and realizes that there will be no harvest, they cry in advance. Because if Angarsk is left without a harvest, that's it, a pipe ... Then we will surely squeal by the fall." (expert, Angarsk).
- "Citizens are switching to pasture. They live on what they grow in orchards and vegetable gardens. That is, they work, but, of course, who can." (expert, Izhevsk).
- "We are in such a situation that we will not pay for an apartment either. We bought a house with a plot in the village - and now we work there for six months, and then we bring it in and sell it. But I consider myself poor, because this is hard labor. To process 20 acres in ours. age - so many sores both he and me ... But we have to do it " (DFG, Samara).
-
1st participant: We grab all the work. If there is work, we work until three in the morning. You go out at eight - and until three in the morning.
3rd participant: I agree, yes. Side job, some kind of kalymchik. Theft does not work - conscience does not allow.
4th participant: It is necessary to work, to work hard on several jobs. Now many people live like this - but still the poor. Especially in families where there are children, and only mother works "(DFG, Novosibirsk).
Many people save on food, clothes and shoes, spend less money on vacation, or even do not use it at all. The economy strategy, according to Novosibirsk sociologists, is chosen by about half of the workers they surveyed.
The same trend is confirmed by our experts.
- "A working person will feed himself today - but in what way? By deprivation of vacation, the inability to maintain health. I think 20 percent of working people experience health problems." (expert, Vladimir).
According to experts and focus group participants, the main share of responsibility for the existence of the working poor in Russia is borne by the state, since it is the state that sets the rules for the functioning of the labor market.
- “The state has all the levers to force a private entrepreneur to pay people a decent salary - both with the help of the carrot policy and with the help of the carrot policy. whatever ... " (expert, Vologda).
- "The law should work like a clock. When there is a mandatory implementation of the law by any owner of any enterprise, then it will already be more than 50 percent of success. If there is political will and the fulfillment of the promises that we hear before the elections ..." (expert, Irkutsk).
Most representatives of regional elites believe that the problem of the working poor is in fact the problem of the absence of real reforms in the production sphere. According to experts, already now the state can take a number of measures in the field of financial and industrial policy, so that the industry starts working and, accordingly, wages increase. The most commonly suggested is the following.
- Abandon the flat income tax rate.
- "There should be a progressive tax. A year ago I was in Sweden: if an enterprise receives super large income, then the owners give up to 90% to taxes. Therefore, there are disabled people, teachers and doctors who live with dignity. And we have all leveled, even though you are a cleaner , even though Khodorkovsky, who makes a million dollars a day in profits, also has 13%. But there is no such thing in any country! Our rulers - both today's and previous ones - defend the interests of the rich. They prove in every possible way that 13% is good " (expert, Vladimir).
- "13% for Khodorkovsky and any other person is a further path to oligarchy. Abramovich doubled his fortune in one year - he increased his fortune by $ 8 billion. But at the same time he made at least 8 million poor." (expert, Ulyanovsk).
- Help businesses that are still in operation to rise from their knees with loans and tax breaks for those who are modernizing production.
- “The main city-forming enterprises have been knocked out - this is a misfortune. There are separate districts in the region where everything is absolutely bad, 3-4 districts in which textiles have collapsed: the unemployed or“ conditionally working ”are interrupted. a week, and, of course, this is a terrific problem. Attempts are being made to restructure and re-profile enterprises, but this is a long-term process, since it goes on completely without serious investments. Therefore, attempts to rebuild the profile of a textile factory, rebuild into a sewing room, well, this should be a very large investment, which , Unfortunately no" (expert, Vladimir).
- Develop protectionist measures for domestic producers.
- “Siberia Airlines has announced that it is purchasing seven Boeing passenger aircraft. And our factories, which produce modern aircraft, are where people sit without work. that are absolutely competitive in the world " (expert, Barnaul).
- To create conditions for the development of high-tech industries in order to make the domestic industry competitive.
- "We need to modernize the economy so that it is competitive. Products are in limited demand, and therefore poverty is understandable." (expert, Irkutsk).
- Introduce by law a fixed share of wages in the cost of production.
- "The state can do everything - change the rules of the game, first of all. With the help of the tax press, it can squeeze out any oligarch so that he would pay his workers the wages that they would not be ashamed to receive. The fact is that all wages in Russia are terribly understated." (expert, Ulyanovsk).
- "Today, for example, at the local level, everything possible has been done to prevent production from developing. For the constituent entities of the Federation - and even municipalities - are more profitable to live on subsidies." (expert, Novosibirsk).
- creation and replication of educational technologies that allow employees to retrain during their entire work activity:
- "Our labor market is oversaturated, but in this labor market there are specialists who, for a number of reasons, have not undergone retraining and do not meet new market demands" (expert, Kemerovo).
- development of high-tech industries - in order to more effectively use the educational potential of the nation:
- “In Barnaul, a lot of the largest factories were closed, where 20 thousand people worked. And these people are now working outside their specialty. People with higher education work as janitors. , they trade in the market, or earn money somewhere " (expert, Barnaul).
- creation of a vocational guidance system for young people:
- “You know, oddly enough, but in fact there are more poor among working people. And young people, in order to enter this normal life, need a stable labor market, to get to a normal level, not to go into crime and get out of this extreme situation.” (expert, Krasnoyarsk).
- training our own and attracting foreign managers who are able to manage large enterprises in modern conditions:
- "We need to retrain personnel. We need to create a wide network of various kinds of training institutions. We need to attract those who can organize production at a modern level and provide jobs." (expert, Vladimir).
- "There are more poor people in the former state enterprises, whose potential has been plundered. They just took out the enterprises for scrap metal. There are workers there, but there is no equipment. They seem to be listed at the enterprise, but they do not have machines, and now they are sorting through garbage. There are thousands of such enterprises." (expert, Ulyanovsk).
- "We have few such organizations and enterprises where decent working conditions, decent wages. Basically, production still from the past is crumbling, with a significant share of physical labor, unattractive monotonous work." (expert, Kemerovo).
- “The poverty rate among workers is higher in small cities, where one or two enterprises are for the whole city and it is simply impossible to change it. won't go anywhere " (expert, Vologda).
- “Entrepreneurs often just openly pay pennies, because they feel their impunity, almost“ go - we don’t keep you. ”That is, there is economic and political insecurity, and there are no trade unions. I do not see solidarity at all. When it is necessary to achieve something - who into the forest, who's for firewood " (expert, Tambov).
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1st participant: The population should be more politically active. Many people complain, I say: "go to the meeting." There was an action of the teachers - only one teacher just left the school. After all, it concerns you - to teach further or to declare a strike. People do not get a vacation for six months!
1st participant: Passive, do not believe ...
2nd participant: They will go - they will be fired immediately.
1st participant: They won't be fired now.
3rd participant: But they will oppress "(DFG, Samara).
Another form of resistance to employers' arbitrariness - going to court - is also extremely unpopular with victims of arbitrariness.
- “I take part in labor dispute proceedings. As a rule, I win - it’s ridiculous not to win, even from the hardest court. The law is magnificent, European, I’m bastard from it, I just need to use it skillfully. The people don’t want to defend their rights. , interests and freedoms. Everyone thinks that the courts cost a lot of money. Nothing of the kind: all the duties are scanty, everyone can now draw up a piece of paper in triplicate, but the machine will work by itself, only skillfully insure, go to consult. We have about 10 free consultations in Saratov, including ours, where we advise people and give directions on how to fight. It is normal - they win. There is no inner striving, no civic dignity, because a slave mentality " (expert, Saratov).
Recently, judging by the polls of managers, employers have become concerned with the problem of labor motivation. At the same time, it is obvious that low earnings and the absence of any intelligible career prospects do not at all contribute to excess activity. A vicious circle arises, which the experts interviewed by us also spoke about.
- "Enterprises are inefficiently functioning - this is one reason. And the second reason, probably, is that we also work specifically. We pretend that we are working, and they pretend that we are being paid." (expert, Izhevsk).
- “When a person sees that no matter how he jumps out of his pants, he still won't work anymore, he has no incentive. Naturally, he works like under Soviet rule - where to steal, deceive, be it a private owner, be the owner of the state. somehow to improve my life due to this. Well, if you can't steal, then at least I won't work for this salary - I will sit and do nothing. " (expert, Vologda).
- “Why in the Irkutsk region the least of all in Russia participated in the elections, the least of all voted for Putin? Because they believe that nothing will change. There is no longer any faith in anyone. the authorities either cannot or does not want to do anything. Therefore, only the last step remains: when the people are brought to white heat, they will take a pitchfork and go to smash " (expert, Irkutsk).
- “If work does not bring joy and income, then the incentive to work disappears, so poverty becomes not only an economic, but also a psychological category. adult population ... Here we feel it very much " (expert, Kemerovo).
