Among the most important characteristics of economic information, reflecting the requirements for it, can be named correctness, value, reliability, accuracy, relevance, completeness.

It is said that information is correct if it has such a form and content that ensures its unambiguous perception by all consumers.

Value is understood as a property of information that reflects the extent to which it contributes to the achievement of the goals and objectives of its consumer (for example, a control system).

The reliability property connects the content side of information as a reflection of some objective reality with reality itself, and the accuracy is determined by the measure of their proximity (remoteness) from each other.

The concept of the relevance of information implicitly implies the possibility of changes in the state of the object to which it refers. The relevance of information reflects its adequacy to the actual state of the reference object.

The completeness of information reflects its sufficiency or insufficiency for making a management decision.

1.3.4. Technology and methods of processing economic information

The economic information system in its composition resembles an enterprise for processing data and producing output information. As in any production process, EIS has a technology for converting input data into output information. The concept of technology is defined as a system of interrelated ways of processing materials and methods of manufacturing products in the production process.

Information technology (IT) is understood as a system of methods and ways of collecting, accumulating, storing, searching and processing information based on the use of tools computer science.

An ordered sequence of interrelated actions that are performed from the moment the information appears until the result is obtained is called the technological process.

The concept of information technology is thus inseparable from the specific environment in which it is implemented, i.e. from the technical and software environment. It should be noted that information technology is a fairly general concept and as a tool can be used by various users, both non-professionals in the computer field and developers of new IT.

The functional part of the EIS is always associated with subject area and the concept of information technology. Generally speaking, technology as a precess is present in any subject area. So, for example, the technology for issuing a loan by a bank may have its own characteristics depending on the type of loan, type of collateral, etc. In the course of these technological processes, a bank employee processes the relevant information.

The solution of economic and managerial problems is always closely related to the performance of a number of operations to collect the information necessary to solve these problems, process it according to some algorithms and issue it to the decision maker (DM) in a convenient form. Obviously, decision-making technology has always had an informational basis, although data processing was carried out manually. However, with the introduction of computer technology in the management process, a special term information technology has appeared.

In order to terminologically highlight the traditional technology for solving economic and managerial problems, we introduce the term subject technology, which is a sequence of technological steps for modifying primary information into result information. For example, accounting technology involves the receipt of primary documentation, which is transformed into the form of accounting entries. The latter, changing the state of analytical accounting, leads to a change in the accounts of synthetic accounting and further balance.

IT differs in the type of information processed (Figure 2.1), but can be combined into integrated technologies.

Rice. 2.1. Classification of IT depending on the type of information processed

The selection proposed in this figure is, to a certain extent, conditional, since most of these ITs allow other types of information to be supported. So, word processors provide the ability to perform primitive calculations, spreadsheet processors can process not only digital, but also textual information, and also have a built-in graphics generation apparatus. However, each of these technologies is still more focused on the processing of information of a certain type.

Obviously, the modification of the elements that make up the concept of IT makes it possible to form a huge number of them in various computer environments.

And today we can talk about providing IT (OIT) and functional IT (FIT).

Providing IT - information processing technologies that can be used as a toolkit in various subject areas for solving various problems. Information technologies of the enabling type can be classified according to the classes of tasks to which they are oriented. The supporting technologies are based on completely different platforms, which is due to the difference in the types of computers and software environments, therefore, when they are combined on the basis of subject technology there is a problem of system integration. It lies in the need to bring various IT to a single standard interface.

Functional IT is such a modification of providing IT, in which any of the subject technologies is implemented. For example, the work of an employee of the credit department of a bank using a computer necessarily involves the use of a combination of banking technologies for assessing the creditworthiness of a borrower, forming a loan agreement and term obligations, calculating a payment schedule and other technologies implemented in any information technology: DBMS, word processor, etc. . The transformation of providing information technology in its pure form into a functional one (modification of some commonly used tools into a special one) can be done both by a specialist designer and by the user himself. It depends on how complex such a transformation is, i.e. on how accessible it is to the user; economist. These opportunities are expanding more and more as enabling technologies become friendlier year by year. Thus, in the arsenal of an employee of the credit department there can be both supporting technologies with which he constantly works: word and spreadsheet processors, and special functional technologies: spreadsheet processors, DBMS, expert systems that implement subject technologies.

Subject technology and information technology influence each other. So, for example, the presence of plastic cards as a carrier of financial information fundamentally changes the subject technology, providing opportunities that were simply absent without this carrier. On the other hand, subject technologies, filling IT with specific content, focus them on well-defined functions. Such technologies can be typical or unique, depending on the degree of unification of the technology for performing these functions.

As an example, we can cite the banking technology for working with file cabinet No. 3, which contains documents received for processing and not executed due to the closure of a personal account due to financial control. In this case, the account is closed first. Then, if information technology is used, this entry is marked with a file cabinet number so that the weight of other documents that reduce the account balance would fall into this file cabinet. In the structure of the operational and accounting department of the bank, the first and second functions can be performed both by one performer and by two different tellers. In addition, the processes of performing these functions can be separated in time. Thus, a note in the personal account, made during its temporary closure by one teller, is used by another teller in the process of processing incoming documents for payment. At the same time, this note can be made by the operator who is the responsible executor for this account (opens, closes accounts, provides operations on the account, accrues interest, etc.).

The classification of IT by the type of user interface (Fig. 2.2) allows us to talk about the system and application interface. And if the latter is associated with the implementation of some functional IT, then the system interface is a set of methods for interacting with a computer, which is implemented by the operating system or its add-on. Modern Operating Systems support command, W1MP- and SILK- interfaces. Currently, the problem of creating a public interface (socialinterface) has been posed.

Rice. 2.2. IT classification by user interface type

The command interface is the simplest. It provides the issuance of a system prompt on the screen for entering a command. For example, on an MS-DOS operating system, the prompt looks like C:\>, but on a UNIX operating system, it is usually a dollar sign.

The WlMP interface stands for Windows(window)Image(image)Menu(menu)Pointer(pointer). A window containing program images and an action menu is displayed on the screen. A pointer is used to select one of them.

SlLK-ishperface stands for -Spich(speech)Image(image)Language(language)Knowledge(knowledge). When using the SILK-interface on the screen, according to a speech command, one moves from one search image to another along semantic semantic links.

The public interface will include the best solutions for WIMP and SILK intsrfsys. It is assumed that when using the public interface, you will not need to understand the menu. Screen

The images clearly point the way forward. Moving from one search images to another will take place along semantic semantic links.

Operating systems (OS) are divided into single-program, multi-program and multi-user. Single-program operating systems include, for example, MS-DOS, etc. Multi-program operating systems, such as UNIX (XENIX), Windows, starting from version 3.1, DOS7.0, OS / 2, etc., allow you to simultaneously run several applications. They differ in the time sharing algorithm. If single-program systems operate either in a batch mode or in an interactive mode, then multi-program systems can combine these modes. Thus, these systems provide batch and dialog technologies.

Multi-user systems are implemented by network operating systems. They provide remote networking technologies as well as packet and conversational technologies for communication in the workplace. All three types of information technologies are most widely used in economic information systems.

Most of the supporting and functional IT can be used by a manager without additional intermediaries (programmers). In this case, the user can influence the sequence of application of certain technologies. Thus, from the point of view of participation or non-participation of the user in the process of performing functional IT, all of them can be divided into package and interactive ones.

Economic tasks solved in a batch mode are characterized by the following properties:

the algorithm for solving the problem is formalized, the process of solving it does not require human intervention;

there is a large amount of input and output data, a significant part of which is stored on magnetic media;

the calculation is performed for most records of the input files;

a large time for solving the problem is due to large amounts of data;

regularity, i.e. tasks are solved with a given frequency. The interactive mode is not an alternative to batch mode, but its development if the application batch mode allows to reduce user intervention in the process of solving the problem, the interactive mode assumes the absence of a rigidly fixed sequence of data processing operations (if it is not due to subject technology).

A special place is occupied by network technologies that ensure the interaction of many users.

Information technologies differ in the degree of their interaction with each other (Fig. 2.3). They can be implemented by various technical means: diskette and networking, as well as using various concepts of data processing and storage: distributed information base and distributed data processing.

Rice. 2.3. Classification of IT according to the degree of their interaction

User Interface Standard for Conversational IT

The user interface includes three concepts: communication between the application and the user; communication between the user and the application; the language of communication. The language of communication is determined by the developer of the software application. Interface properties are: concreteness and clarity. The command interface that was most common earlier had a number of shortcomings (many commands, lack of a standard for applications, etc.), which limited its range of application. To overcome these shortcomings, attempts have been made to simplify it (for example, NortonCommander(NC)). However, the real solution to the problem was the creation of a graphical shell for the operating system. Currently, almost all common operating systems use a graphical interface for their work. An example here is the interface developed at Xerox's Palo Alto Research Center for Apple's Macintosh computers. A little later, a graphical shell called Microsoft Windows was developed, which implements the WIMP technology and satisfies the CUA standard. The innovation was the use of the mouse, the selection of commands from the menu, the provision of separate windows to programs, the use of images in the form of icons to designate programs.

The user-friendliness of the interface and the wealth of features make Windows the optimal system for everyday work. Applications written for Windows use the same interface, so its consistency minimizes the learning curve for any Windows application. The introduction of Windows-95 further simplified the user experience, as the interface became even simpler, more documented, and included built-in communication capabilities.

Some of the most common information technologies

The most common computer technologies are editing text data, processing graphic and tabular data.

Word processors (or editors) are used to work with text.

To date, many word processors have been developed. In general, they have the same purpose, but the opportunities provided and the means of their implementation are different. The same applies to GPUs and spreadsheets.

Among the Windows word processors, as the most common environment, we can distinguish Write and Word. The technology for their use is based on the WIMP interface, but the capabilities of processors such as Word are significantly expanded and to some extent it can be considered as a desktop publishing system.

What features do word processors provide? This is typing, storing it on computer media, viewing and printing. Most processors implement the functions of spell checking, font and size selection, heading centering, pagination, printing in one or more columns, inserting tables and figures into the text, using page link templates, working with blocks of text, changing the structure of the document.

For quick view text, it can be assigned the status of a draft, and the scale of the image can also be changed. Navigating through text is made easier by the use of bookmarks.

With the help of formatting tools, you can create the appearance of a document, change the style, underline, italicize, resize characters, highlight paragraphs, align them left, right, center, highlight them with a frame.

Before printing a document, you can preview it, check the text, select the paper size, and set the number of copies to print.4

Repeating sections of text, such as an appeal in a letter or final words, can be designated as autotext, given a name. In the future, instead of this text, it is enough to indicate its name, and word processor will automatically replace it.

The need to enter graphs, diagrams, diagrams, drawings, labels into arbitrary text or a document necessitated the creation1 of graphic processors. Graphic processors are tools that allow you to create and modify graphic images using appropriate information technologies:

commercial graphics;

illustrative graphics;

scientific graphics.

Commercial graphics information technology provides the display of information stored in spreadsheets, databases and separate local files in the form of two- or three-dimensional graphs such as a pie chart, bar graph, line graphs, etc.

IT illustrative graphics make it possible to create illustrations for various text documents in the form of regular - various geometric figures(so-called vector graphics) - and irregular structures - user drawings (raster graphics). Processors that implement IT of illustrative bitmap graphics allow the user to select the thickness and color of lines, the fill palette, the font for writing and overlaying text, and previously created graphic images. In addition, the user can erase, cut the drawing and move its parts. These tools are implemented in IT PaintBrush. But there are IT tools that allow you to view images in slide mode, special effects and bring them to life (CorellDraw, Storyboard, 3dStudio).

IT scientific graphics are designed to serve cartography tasks, design scientific calculations containing chemical, mathematical and other formulas.

Most GPUs conform to the W1MP user interface standard. The panel contains the action menu and toolbars and colors. The toolbar consists of a set of graphic symbols required to build almost any drawing. The color bar contains the color gamut of the computer monitor.

Tabular documents make up a large part of the workflow of any type of enterprise. Therefore, tabular IT is especially important in the creation and operation of EIS. The complex of software tools that implement the creation, registration, storage, editing, processing of spreadsheets and their issuance for printing is commonly called a spreadsheet processor. A spreadsheet is a two-dimensional array of rows and columns stored in computer memory.

Such spreadsheet processors as SupcrCalc, VisiCalc, Lotus1-2-3, QuattroPro are widely used. For Windows, the Excel processor was created, a technology to work with. which is similar to working with any Windows application of the WIMP interface.

The spreadsheet allows you to solve most financial and administrative tasks, such as payroll and other accounting tasks; forecasting sales, market growth, income;

analysis interest rates and taxes; preparation of financial declarations and balance sheets; maintaining accounting books for recording payments; cost estimates; accounting of money checks; budgetary and statistical calculations.

The basic unit of a spreadsheet is the named worksheet where it resides. The place where a row meets a column is called a cell or field. There are two options for cell addressing: absolute and relative. Absolute addressing is the most common. The cell address (identifier) ​​is a letter indicating the column and a number indicating the row number. Both can be seen on the worksheet. With relative addressing, the upper status line indicates the increment with a sign from the beginning of the desired cell. The bottom line of the worksheet gives an explanation of the selected menu action. At the top are the action menu, toolbar and adder line, which reflects all reproducible actions.

The column width and row height are given by default. However, it is possible to format a cell, column, row, sheet. This allows you to change the style of the text, which allows you to improve the appearance of the document without using a text editor.

Data in the form of numbers, text or formulas is entered in the cell marked with the text cursor. To specify a block of cells, it is enough to indicate the address of the upper left cell of the diagonal of the block, the address of the lower right cell of the diagonal, or, conversely, put a dot or a colon between them. You can set the block selection.

Editing tables allows you to copy, delete, clear a cell, block, sheet, and perform many other functions listed in the Edit and Paste action menu. You can insert a picture, graph, chart, any other object prepared by another program into a table using OLE technology.

Most spreadsheets have tools for creating graphs and charts, editing them and including them in the right place on the sheet. In addition, they have a large number of built-in functions - mathematical, statistical and others. This greatly simplifies the calculation process and expands the range of applications. The user is given the opportunity to redefine the toolbar, worksheet view, change scaling, enable scrollbars, switches, menus. The service functions of the Excel spreadsheet processor allow you to check the spelling of text, protect data from reading or writing. It is possible to create dialog boxes or access dynamic libraries. Note that the Excel spreadsheet has a macro tool -VisualBasic. It is an object-oriented programming language. Its difference, for example, from C ++ or Pascal is that in VisualBasic there is no possibility to create new types of objects or generate descendants of existing ones: However, the user receives a large set of ready-made objects: workbooks, sheets, cells, charts, etc.

All spreadsheet processors allow you to create databases and provide convenient tools for working with them.

Microsoft Excel 5.0 has one type of file - a workbook, consisting of worksheets, chart sheets and macros, but all sheets are filed in workbook. This approach simplifies the work with several documents due to quick access to each sheet through the tabs at the bottom of the sheet, allows you to work with sheets combined into a group, for example, a group of registration cards for a product. Moreover, if a group of actions is performed on one sheet, these actions are automatically repeated on all sheets of the group, which simplifies the design of several sheets of the same type in structure. Volumetric links allow you to create a summary document based on data from several sheets without entering cumbersome formulas with external links. Microtechnology "Pivot Table Wizard" allows you to select the necessary data from the document, present them in a pivot table, changing the structure, appearance, adding summary lines, grouping and sorting. The workbook can include information about the topic, author, keywords. It can also be used when searching for a file on a disk or when finding out its purpose.

When performing all functions in the Excel processor, you can use a multi-window system that allows you to perform parallel actions. All objects created by the user (generated tables, pivot tables, macros, selections from the database, charts and graphs) can be saved to disk as a file or printed.

At one workplace, the user, as a rule, deals with different types of information. The use of an individual software tool for processing each type of data complicates technological process work, makes it difficult to send data for processing by several means. Therefore, at first, integrated packages appeared that combined various IT: text, spreadsheet and graphics processors, a database management system, such as FrameWork, Symphony, etc. A set of Works-2 technologies was developed for the Windows shell. Their purpose is to facilitate the movement of information between various applications- parts of the overall package. Further, three-dimensional graphics tools, an information manager, electronic document recognition systems, Email. This package is NovellPerfectOffice3.0 [ 23 ] for Windows. It includes: a modern word processor (WordPerfect6.1); spreadsheet with the ability to use the database, plotting graphs and charts (QuattroPro4.1); a program for creating slide shows, presentation graphics, similar in capabilities to CorelDRAW (Presentations3.0); personal information manager (Infocentral1.1); an electronic document distribution system (EYY standard) that allows you to move documents around the network and view them even in a place where there is no PerfectOffice (Envoy1.0a) and a planning tool (GroupWise4.1Client) that is used to group work with information and implements built-in communications, and e-mail application.

In the domestic development - electronic office SKAT (comprehensive trade automation system) in the LotusNotes system for Windows, a database management system, e-mail, information security tools and application development tools are integrated: text and graphic editors, spreadsheets. The SCAT package implements subsystems: a warehouse of components, a warehouse of finished products, invoices, contracts and other documents, purchase orders, a list of companies, a price list, directories, system settings, documentation.

Electronic office LinkWorks by Digital provides centralized data storage based on relational DBMS tools and document management within the client-server network technology. This integrated package, in addition to the relational database, contains text, graphics and spreadsheet processors, which, interacting with each other, implement an object-oriented approach. The latter is that the user works with the same objects as before, before purchasing this package (contracts, invoices, price lists).

The package is mobile and works in the environment of various operating systems, it provides interaction with global systems (via TCP / IP Protocol or DECnet) and e-mail.

Information network technologies

In the 60s. the first computer networks (CS) appeared. In fact, they started a kind of technical revolution, comparable to the appearance of the first computers, since an attempt was made to combine the technology of collecting, storing, transmitting and processing information on a computer with communication technology.

One of the first networks that influenced their further development was ARPA, created by fifty universities and US companies. Currently, it covers the entire territory of the United States, part of Europe and Asia. The ARPA network has proven the technical feasibility and economic feasibility of developing large networks for more efficient use of computers and software.

In the 60s. in Europe, the international networks EIN and Euronet were first developed and implemented, then national networks appeared. In 1972, the MIASA network was introduced in Vienna; in 1979, 17 European countries, the USSR, the USA, Canada, and Japan joined it. It is designed to carry out fundamental work on the problems of energy, food, agriculture, healthcare, etc. In addition, thanks to new technology, the network has enabled all national institutions to develop links with each other.

In the 80s. a statistical information teleprocessing system (STOSI) was put into operation, serving the Main Computing Center of the Central Statistical Office of the USSR in Moscow and republican computing centers in the Union republics.

There are currently over 200 registered global networks, 54 of which are made in the USA, 16 in Japan.

With the advent of microcomputers and personal computers, local area networks arose. They made it possible to raise the management of a production facility to a qualitatively new level, increase the efficiency of using computers, improve the quality of processed information, implement paperless technology, and create new technologies. The combination of LAN and global networks has opened up access to the world's information resources.

All computers connected to a network are divided into main and auxiliary. The main computers are subscriber computers (clients). They carry out the necessary information and computing work and determine the resources of the network. Auxiliary computers (servers) are used to convert and transfer information from one computer to another via communication channels and switching machines (host computers). Increased requirements are imposed on the quality and power of servers, and any PC can act as a host machine.

The client is an application that sends a request to the server. It is responsible for processing, displaying information and transmitting requests to the server. Any computer can be used as a client computer.

Server - a personal or virtual computer that performs the functions of servicing a client and distributing system resources: printers, databases, programs, external memory, etc. A network server supports the functions of a network operating system, a terminal server supports the functions of a multi-user system. The database server provides processing of requests to databases in multiuser systems. It is a tool for solving network problems in which local networks are used to share data, and not just to organize the collective use of remote external devices.

Host-computer - a computer installed in the network nodes and decisive questions network switching. The switching network is formed by many servers and host computers connected by physical communication channels, which are called backbone. Coaxial and fiber-optic cables, cables of the "twisted pair" type are used as trunk channels.

According to the method of information transmission, computer networks are divided into circuit switching networks, message switching networks, packet switching networks and integrated networks.

Circuit switching networks were the first to appear. For example, in order to transfer a message between clients B and E (Fig. 2.4), a direct connection is formed, including channels of one of the groups: 3, 5,7; 1, 2.4, 6; 1, 2, 5, 7; 3,4,6. This connection must remain unchanged throughout the session. The ease of implementation of this method of information transmission entails its disadvantages: low channel utilization, high cost of data transmission, increased waiting time for other clients.

Rice. 2.4. An example of a computer network: L, B, C, D, E, F - subscriber stations; KM - communication machines; 1-7 - main channels

When switching messages, information is transmitted in chunks called messages. A direct connection is usually not established, and the transmission of the message begins after the first channel is free, and so on, until the message reaches the destination. Each server receives information, assembles it, checks it, routes it, and transmits the message. The disadvantages of message switching are the low data transfer rate and the impossibility of dialogue between clients, although the cost of transmission is reduced.

When switching packets, the exchange is carried out in short packets of a fixed structure. A packet is a part of a message that conforms to a certain standard. The small length of packets prevents blocking of communication lines, does not allow queues to grow in switching nodes. This ensures fast connection, low error rate, reliability and network efficiency. But when transmitting a packet, a routing problem arises, which is solved by software and hardware methods. The most common methods are fixed routing and shortest queue routing. Fixed routing implies the presence of a route table, in which the route from one client to another is fixed, which ensures ease of implementation, but at the same time uneven network loading. The shortest queue method uses several tables in which the channels are prioritized. Priority is the inverse function of the distance to the destination. Transmission starts on the first free channel with the highest priority. When using this method, the packet transmission delay is minimal.

At present, software and hardware routing tools have been developed. Repeater (repeater) - the simplest type of device for connecting the same type of LAN, it relays all received packets from one LAN to another. A communication device that allows you to connect a LAN with the same and different signal systems is called a bridge. A communication device similar to a bridge (router) performs packet transmission in accordance with certain protocols, provides a LAN connection on network layer. Gateway - a device for connecting a LAN to a global network.

Networks that provide switching of channels, messages and packets are called integrated networks. They combine several switching networks. Part of the integral channels is used exclusively, i.e. for direct connection. Direct channels are created for the duration of a communication session between different switching networks. At the end of the session, the direct channel breaks up into independent trunk channels. The integrated network is effective if the amount of information transmitted through direct channels does not exceed 10-15%.

When developing computer networks, the problem arises of coordinating the interaction of computers of clients, servers, communication lines and other devices. It is solved by establishing certain rules, called protocols. The implementation of protocols together with the implementation of server management is called the network OS. Some of the protocols are implemented in software, some in hardware. To standardize protocols, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) - ISO was created. She introduced the concept of open systems architecture, which means the possibility of interaction between systems according to certain rules, although the systems themselves can be created using various technical means. The basis of the architecture of open systems is the concept of the level of logical decomposition of a complex information network. The system is divided into a number of subsystems, or levels, each of which performs its own functions. ISO has established seven such levels.

The first layer, physical, defines some of the physical characteristics of the channel. These are requirements for connector cable characteristics (RS,EIA,X.21) and signal electrical characteristics (for example, the V.22 bis model provides a data rate of 2400 baud). In 1994, the V.32 standard was approved in Europe for operation on any channels. It defines ten procedures by which the modem, after testing the line (initially according to the V.21 standard), selects the carrier frequencies and bandwidth corresponding to the quality of the line (11 combinations), etc. According to the type of network characteristics, they are divided into analog (V.21, etc.) , for example, there is a regular telephone, and digital ones, for which the ISDN standard has been developed, which is widespread abroad.

The second layer, channel, manages data transfer between two network nodes. It provides control over the correctness of the transmission of interlocked information. Each block is supplied with a checksum. In recent developments, this control is moved to the hardware environment. A modem operating on one of the error correction protocols and detecting one requests a retransmission. To increase the exchange rate, data is compressed according to the type of archiving using the same algorithms, for example, the algorithm used in the ARC archiver, or the Zimpel algorithm in the PKZIP archiver. When a message is received, it is expanded. The length of the transmitted block may vary depending on the quality of the channel. The protocols currently used are V.42 bis (CCITT), MNP5, MNP7.

Third and layer, network, provides flow control, routing. It covers data blocking and addressing agreements. Information from several modems can be transmitted over one channel to increase its load. Protocols X.25 and X.75 (space) belong to this level. The IP protocol is used to combine heterogeneous networks of different technologies.

The fourth level, transport, is responsible for the standardization of data exchange between programs located on different computers in the network (TP0.TP1).

The fifth level, session, defines the rules of the dialogue application programs, restart, checking access rights to network resources.

The sixth level, representative, defines data formats, alphabets, representation codes for special and graphic characters (ASCII, EBCDIC, ASN.1..X.409).

The seventh layer, application layer, defines the service layer. For example, the X.400 Protocol is associated with the standardization of email. Such technical means as telex, telefax, videotex, teletex, etc. are known. At the same time, telex supports the information transfer rate standard adopted in 1988 at 50 baud. Teletex already provides 1200 baud.

Standardization extends to the logical level of the transmitted information. First of all, it is a standard for the form of transmitted documents. The SWIFT standard is widespread in the banking system. It defines the location and purpose of the document fields. The fundamental point when using this and other computer standards for documentation is the official recognition (de jure) of the document transmitted via communication channels as legally valid.

In April 1989, the 44th session of the UN Economic Commission for Europe declared the next decade a period of large-scale implementation of the universal system in international trade. electronic exchange data in administration, trade and transport (UN/EDIFACT). On January 1, 1995, the European Union "(EU) switched to the mandatory use of EDIFACT when exchanging documentation and information between EU government agencies operating in English, French, German, Spanish. The Central Bank of the Russian Federation in 1993 during negotiations with the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) has experienced a lack of use of SWIFT, since working with European banks requires a constant means of communication for all participants. document, format its electronic display and transmit to the subscriber. The message received by him is expanded into the usual form and can be printed as a hard copy of the document. Using this scheme reduces the costs of circulation in trade by 30%. In Russia in August 1994, by a decree Government (N540) decided to create a center for efficient trade using international standards and communications, the cost of which is 1 million dollars. Further creation regional centers will be carried out on the basis of partial contributions from regional administrations and entrepreneurs of the region, banks that finance foreign trade operations. The leading organizations for the dissemination of EDIFACT in Russia are V/O InformVES, Roskominform, the Central Bank of the Russian Federation, the State Customs Committee, the Association of Users of Electronic Information Transmission, the Ministry of Transport, the Russian Academy of Sciences, etc.

Each layer solves its own problems and provides services to the layer above it. The rules for the interaction of different systems of the same level are called a protocol, the rules for the interaction of neighboring levels in one system are called an interface. Each protocol must be transparent to neighboring layers. Transparency is the property of transmitting information, encoded in any way, to be understandable to interacting layers.

Networks are divided into public, private and commercial. According to ISO recommendations for physical layer the following classes of public networks are defined: up to 1000 km - average length; up to 10,000 km long; up to 25,000 km - the longest land; up to 80,000 km - trunk via satellite; up to 160,000 km - trunk international via two satellites.

Local networks are divided into centralized and peer-to-peer. Centralized use a file server. The workstations do not communicate with each other. The number of users is more than ten. In peer-to-peer networks, network management is such that each node can act as both a workstation and a file server. Workstations can be combined and share a base on a file server. Such networks are inexpensive! no, but the number of users is small. The most common local network operating systems include. UNIX - for creating medium and large networks with hundreds of users; NetWare3.11 - for creating medium networks from 20 to 100 users within the same building; VINES - for creating large distributed LANs; LANManager - for medium and large "■ networks with the number of users from 25 to 200.

No less widespread was the technology of a computer method for sending and processing information messages, which provides operational communication between the leadership of working groups, employees, scientists, business people, businessmen and everyone. This technology is called e-mail.

E-mail is a special software package for storing and forwarding messages between computer users. Through e-mail, a paperless postal service is implemented. It is a system for collecting, registering, processing and transmitting any information (text documents, images, digital data, sound recordings, etc.) over computer networks and performs such functions as editing documents before transmission, storing them in a special bank; forwarding of correspondence; checking and correcting errors that occur during transmission; issuance of confirmation of receipt of correspondence by the addressee; receiving and storing information in your "mailbox"; viewing received mail.

"Mailbox" - a specially organized file for storing correspondence. The mailbox consists of two baskets: sending and receiving. Any user can access another user's receiving basket and drop information there. But he cannot see it. The mail server collects information from the mailing basket for distribution to other users. Each mailbox has network address. To forward correspondence, you can establish a connection with mailbox addressee in on-line mode. For example, in the SpnnlMail network, a user, having registered and received a certain status, can enter the network node closest to him through telephone channels and communicate with the necessary subscribers in on-line mode. This method is inconvenient, since it is necessary to wait until the recipient's computer is turned on. Therefore, the more common method is to designate individual computers as post offices, called mail servers. At the same time, all recipients' computers are connected to the nearest mail server, which receives, stores and forwards mail items further along the network until they reach the addressee. Sending to the addressee is carried out as it gets in touch with the nearest mail server in the off-line mode. An example is the Relcom network. The user will send the message along with the address over a telephone channel via a modem to the nearest mail server in on-line mode. The message is registered, queued, and transmitted through the first free channel to the next mail server until the addressee picks it up in his mailbox. Mail servers implement the following functions: ensuring fast and high-quality information delivery, communication session management, checking the accuracy of information and correcting errors, storing information on demand and notifying the user about the correspondence received by him, registering and accounting for correspondence, checking passwords when requesting correspondence, support directories with addresses of users.

Forwarding messages to the user can be performed in individual, group and general modes. In the individual mode, the addressee is a separate user's computer and the correspondence contains its address. In group mode, correspondence is sent simultaneously to a group of recipients. This group can be formed in different ways. Mail servers have group recognition facilities. For example, the address might be "get it for anyone interested in this topic" or a mailing list. In the general mode, correspondence is sent to all users - owners of mailboxes. Through the last two modes, you can organize a teleconference, electronic bulletin boards. To avoid overloading mailboxes in mail servers directories of addresses containing filters for group and general messages are stored.

E-mail supports word processors for viewing and editing correspondence, information retrieval systems for determining the addressee, tools for maintaining a list of information sent, tools for providing extended types of services: fax, telex, etc.

E-mail moaci be organized in the local area network within the enterprise to provide internal information exchange For example, its. mail company Lotus Development (branch of IBM) It serves to automate intra-office operations. Oriented to DOS, Windows, OS/2, Macintosh, UNIX. Can provide mezheistsm th exchange with other e-mails on global computer networks. For example, her mail can be connected via any channels, including satellite, via X.25, X.75 protocols to MHS, Sprint, Relcom, MCIMail, Profs, AT&T, Easylink, 3ComMaiI, SoftSwitch and other networks.

If independent email packages were previously used, now there is a tendency to include it in integrated packages, for example, Novell's electronic office for Windows-PerfectOffice3 0Windowb-95 entered the domestic market in August 1995. It itself and most applications contain built-in communication capabilities

Most global computer networks support e-mail. Modern integrated packages use object-oriented technology, and the user's work is reduced to working with the menu. The mailbox is complemented by a trash can where the user can place unwanted correspondence. However, if necessary, he can take everything from there or finally throw it away.

E-mail is used in all business areas, reducing the time for organizing transactions To expand the scope of services, systems have already been created for the interaction of e-mail with fax and telex networks. For example, the DECfaxMail system provides the exchange of fax messages via telephone line with e-mail systems such as Digital, ccMail, MSMail, MS Word for Windows. E-mail penetrates to the household level, becoming a means of communication between neighbors from the same house, street, different countries.

Network technologies make it possible to create geosystems for access to any global storage of information of any type.

Distributed technologies for data processing and storage

When using information technologies of computer networks, it becomes possible to implement the territorial distribution of production. For the administration of the company, it does not matter where exactly the production is located, in this building, 100 m or 10,000 km away. Quite different problems appear, such as intercontinental supply, standard time, and so on. Since the planetary distribution of industrial production becomes possible, transnational companies can be created, realizing world merchandise exports within the firm. At the same time, the metropolis, having invested 5-7% of the turnover in the economy of another country, gets the opportunity to control 50-60% of its economy. This is explained by the fact that due to the investment of high technologies, the metropolitan country gets the opportunity to influence and even exercise control over the economic and political development of another country. For example, 80% of all international credit transactions are made by US banks. The foreign exchange reserves of the central banks of Western cipan are 75% US dollars, and 55% of international trade settlements are carried out in US dollars. Those. The United States pays with renewable resources: agricultural products, information technology, scientific and technical knowledge, dollars. This becomes possible thanks to the latest network technologies and the development of communications.

One of the most important network technologies is distributed data processing. Personal computers stand at their workplaces, i.e. where information is generated and used. They are connected by communication channels. This made it possible to allocate their resources to separate functional areas of activity and change the technology of data processing in the direction of decentralization. Distributed data processing has made it possible to increase the efficiency of meeting the changing information needs of an information worker and thereby ensure the flexibility of his decisions. Advantages of distributed data processing: a large number of interacting users !! from centralized base by distributing the processing and storage of local databases on different computers; ensuring access of the information worker to the computing resources of the computer network; ensuring symmetrical data exchange between remote users.

The introduction of the classification of data presentation models into hierarchical, network and relational ones affected the architecture of database management systems and the technology of their processing. The DBMS architecture describes its functioning as an interaction of two types of processes: client and server.

Distributed processing and distributed database are not synonymous. If during distributed processing work is performed with the database, then it is understood that the presentation of data, their meaningful processing, work with the database at the logical level are performed on the client's personal computer, and maintaining the database up to date is performed on the server. In the case of a distributed database, the latter is hosted on several servers. Work with it is carried out on the same personal computers or on others, and to access remote data, you must use a network DBMS.

In a distributed processing system, a client can send a request to its own local database or to a remote one. Remote request - a single request to one server. Several remote requests to the same server are combined into a remote transaction. If separate transaction requests are processed by different servers, then the transaction is called distributed. In this case, one transaction request is processed by one server. A distributed DBMS allows multiple servers to process a single request. Such a request is called distributed. Only distributed request processing supports the concept distributed database data.

Databases are automated storages of promptly updated information. If in the 70s. Since there was a trade in "raw" information, data, in our time automated analytical complexes have been created that trade the results of the analysis of "raw" information. Such bases are called "gray" oil (brain). For example, in the United States, firms united in the Information Industry Association, which made it possible to provide 80% of the world's information services.

Databases have been created in all areas of human activity: financial, economic, scientific and technical, electronic documentation, credit, statistical, marketing, newspaper reports, government orders, patent information, bibliographic, etc. At the same time, the bases are divided into commercial and public.

The organization of data processing depends on the way they are distributed. There are centralized, decentralized and mixed methods of data distribution

Centralized data organization is the easiest to implement (Figure 2.5). One server hosts a single copy of the database. All database operations are provided by this server. Data is accessed using a remote query or remote transaction. The advantage of this method is the easy maintenance of the database up to date, and the disadvantage! is that the size of the database is limited by the size of the external memory; all requests are routed to a single server, with associated communication costs and latency. Hence the limitation on parallel processing. The base may not be available for remote users when communication errors occur and completely fails when the central server fails.

Rice. 2.5. Centralized data organization

Decentralized data organization involves splitting the information base into several physically distributed ones. Each client uses its own database, which can be either part of a common information base(Figure 2.6), or a copy of the infobase as a whole (Figure 2.7), which leads to its duplication for each client.

Fig 2 6 Decentralized organization of data by way of distribution

Fig 2.7 Decentralized organization of data in a way of duplication

Partition-based data distribution hosts the database on multiple servers. Existence of copies separate parts unacceptable. Advantages of this method: most requests are satisfied by local databases, which reduces the response time; increase the availability of data and the reliability of their storage; the cost of fetch and update requests is reduced compared to centralized distribution; the system will remain partially operational if one server fails. There are also disadvantages: some remote requests or transactions may require access to all servers, which increases the waiting time and cost of service; it is necessary to have information about the placement of data in various databases. However, availability and reliability will increase. Partitioned databases are most suitable for the case of sharing local and global computer networks.

The method of duplication lies in the fact that each server of the computer network hosts a complete database. This ensures the greatest reliability of data storage. Disadvantages of the method: increased requirements for the amount of external memory, complicating the adjustment of bases, since synchronization is required in order to coordinate copies. Advantages - all requests are executed locally, which provides fast access. This method is used when the reliability factor is critical, the base is small, and the update rate is low.

A mixed organization of data storage is also possible, which combines two methods of distribution: partitioning and duplication (Fig. 2.8), while acquiring both the advantages and disadvantages of both methods. There is a need to store information about where the data is located on the network. At the same time, a compromise is reached between the amount of memory for the database as a whole and for the database in each server in order to ensure the reliability and efficiency of its operation; parallel processing is easily implemented, i.e. with. servicing a distributed query, or transaction Despite the flexibility of a mixed way of organizing data, there remains the problem of the interdependence of factors affecting system performance, the problem of its reliability and meeting memory requirements. A mixed way of organizing data can only be used if there is a network DBMS.

Rice. 2.8. Mixed data organization

In databases for collective use, database servers become the central technological link. Database server software provides the implementation of multi-user applications, centralized storage, data integrity and security. The performance of database servers is an order of magnitude higher than that of file servers used in local networks. Local area networks were created to share expensive peripheral equipment. The use of a database server allowed many users to access the same files. This was the prerequisite for the creation of network DBMS.

The power of network DBMS based on a file server is currently insufficient. In a busy network, performance inevitably drops, security and data integrity are violated. The performance problem arose not because the 386 processors weren't powerful enough, but because the file servers were all-or-nothing. Full copies of the database files are moved back and forth across the network. Problems with security and integrity arose due to the fact that from the very beginning file servers were not designed to preserve the integrity of data and restore it in case of an accident.

The client-server technology, being more powerful, has replaced the file server technology. It made it possible to combine the advantages of single-user systems (high level of interactive support, user-friendly interface, low price) with the advantages of larger computer systems (integrity maintenance, data protection, multitasking)

In the classical sense, a DBMS is a set of programs that allow you to create and maintain a database up to date. Functionally, the DBMS consists of three parts: the core (database), language and programming tools.

The programming tools refer to the client interface, or external interface. They may include a query language data processor. A language is a set of procedural and non-procedural commands supported by the DBMS. The most commonly used languages ​​are SQL and QBE. The kernel performs all other functions that are included in the concept of "database processing"

The main idea of ​​the client-server interface is to place the servers on powerful machines, and the applications of clients using the language on less powerful machines. Thus, more resources will be used. powerful server and less powerful customer machines. Input-output to the database is based not on physical data fragmentation, but on logical, i.e. the server sends clients not a complete copy of the database, but only logically necessary portions, thereby reducing network traffic. Network traffic is the flow of network messages. In client-server technology, client programs and requests are stored separately from the DBMS. The server processes client requests, selects the necessary data from the database, sends them to clients over the network, updates information, and ensures data integrity and safety.

Consider the main types of distributed data processing technology.

1. Client-server technology focused on standalone computer, i.e. both the client and the server are hosted on the same computer. In terms of functionality, such a system is similar to a centralized DBMS. Neither distributed processing nor distributed DBMS is supported.

2. Client-server technology focused on centralized distribution. When using this technology, the client gets access to the data of a single remote server, data can only be read, dynamic data access is implemented - through remote transactions and queries, their number should be small so that the system performance does not decrease.

3. Client-server technology focused on local computer network. This technology is characterized by the following features: a single server provides access to the database; the client forms a process responsible for the meaningful processing of data, their presentation and logical access to the database; database access is slow because client and server are connected via LAN.

4. Client-server technology focused on data changes in one place In the case of using this technology, the processing of a distributed transaction is implemented; remote servers are not interconnected by a computer network, i.e. there is no coordinator server; the client can only change1 data in its local database; there is a danger of "mortal embrace", i.e. a situation where task A is waiting for records locked by task B, and task B is waiting for records locked by task A. Therefore, a distributed DBMS must have a means of controlling conflicting query matches. Data distribution implements the partitioning method.

5. Client-server technology focused on changing data in several places. Unlike the previous technology, there is a coordinator server here that supports the data transfer protocol between different servers. Distributed transactions can be processed in different remote servers. This will create the prerequisites for the development of a distributed DBMS. A mixed distribution strategy is implemented by transferring copies using the DBMS.

6. Client-server technology focused on a distributed DBMS. It provides a partitioning and duplication strategy, allowing faster access to data. A distributed DBMS provides client independence from the server location, global optimization, distributed database integrity extension, distributed administrative control.

In all technologies, there are two ways to communicate between client applications and. database servers: direct and indirect. With a direct connection, the client application communicates directly with the database server, while with an indirect connection, access to the remote server is provided by means of the local database. It is possible to combine both methods.

The use of client-server technology allows you to transfer part of the work from the server to the client's computer, equipped with tools for performing his professional duties. Thus, this technology allows you to independently increase the capabilities of the database server and improve the client's tools. The disadvantage of the client-server technology is the increased requirements for the performance of the computer server, the complexity of managing a computer network, and in the absence of a network DBMS, the complexity of organizing distributed processing.

The operating environment of the database server is understood as the capabilities of the computer OS and the network OS. Each database server can run on a specific type of computer and network OS. Server operating systems are DOS versions 5.0, XENIX, UNIX, Windows NT, OS / 2, etc. Currently, about ten servers are the most commonly used, in particular SQL-server, SQLBASE-scrvcr, ORACLE-servcr, etc. According to expert estimates, database servers belong to future

Database servers are designed to support a large number of different types of applications. Object-oriented tools, elsk-background tables, word processors, graphics packages, desktop publishing, and other information technologies can be used to interface with a database server.

hypertext technology

In 1945, W. Bush, scientific adviser to President H. Truman, having analyzed the ways of presenting information in the form of reports, reports, projects, schedules, plans and realizing the inefficiency of such a presentation, proposed a method for placing information on the principle of associative thinking. Based on this principle, a model of the hypothetical MEMEX machine was developed. After 20 years, T. Nelson implemented this principle on a computer and called it hypertext.

Usually any text is represented as one long string of characters that reads in one direction. Hypertext technology is that the text is presented as multidimensional, i.e. with a hierarchical network type structure. The text material is divided into fragments. Each fragment visible on the computer screen, supplemented by numerous connections with other fragments, allows you to clarify information about the object under study and move in one or more directions along the selected connection.

Hypertext has a non-linear network form of organization of the material, divided into fragments, for each of which there is a transition to other fragments according to certain types of links. When establishing links, one can rely on different grounds (keys), but in any case, we are talking about the semantic, semantic similarity of the linked fragments. By following these links, you can read or master the material in any order, not in a single order. The text loses its isolation, becomes fundamentally open, it is possible to insert new fragments into it, indicating links for them with the existing ones. The structure of the text is not destroyed, and in general the hypertext does not have an a priori given structure. Thus, hypertext is a new technology for presenting unstructured freely growing knowledge. This is what distinguishes it from other information representation models.

Hypertext is understood as a system of information objects (articles) interconnected by directed links that form a link. Each object is associated with an information panel on the screen, on which the user can associatively select one of the links. Objects do not have to be text, they can be graphic, musical, using animation tools, audio and video equipment. Hypertext processing has opened up new opportunities for mastering information, qualitatively different from traditional ones. Instead of searching for information by the corresponding search key, hypertext technology involves moving from one information object to another, taking into account their semantic, semantic relatedness. The processing of information according to the rules of formal inference in hypertext technology corresponds to remembering the path of movement through the hypertext network.

Hypertext technology is focused on processing information not instead of a person, but together with a person, i.e. becomes copyright. The convenience of this use lies in the fact that the user himself determines the approach to studying or creating material, taking into account his individual abilities, knowledge, skill level and training. Hypertext contains not only information, but also the apparatus for its effective search. In terms of the depth of formalization of information, hypertext technology occupies an intermediate position between documentary and factual information systems.

Structurally, hypertext consists of information material, a hypertext thesaurus, a list of main topics and an alphabetical dictionary.

The information material is divided into information articles, consisting of the title of the article and the text. The title contains the subject or name of the object being described. An informational article contains traditional definitions and concepts, should occupy one panel and be easily visible so that the user can understand whether it is worth reading it carefully or moving on to other articles that are similar in meaning. The text included in the informational article may be accompanied by explanations, examples, documents, real world objects. A cursory review of the text of the article is simplified if this auxiliary information is visually different from the main one, for example, it is highlighted or highlighted in a different font.

The hypertext thesaurus is an automated dictionary that displays the semantic relationships between the lexical units of a descriptive information retrieval language and is designed to search for words by their semantic content. The term thesaurus was introduced in the 13th century. Florentine B. Lotiki for the title of the encyclopedia. From Latin, this word is translated as treasure, stock, wealth. The hypertext thesaurus consists of thesaurus entries. A thesaurus entry has a title and a list of titles of related thesaurus entries, where the relationship type and titles of the thesaurus entries are indicated. The title of the thesaurus article coincides with the title of the informational article and is the title of the object, the description of which is contained in informative article. Unlike traditional thesauri, the descriptor description of a hypertext thesaurus contains not only simple, but also compound names of objects. Forming a hypertext thesaurus entry means indexing tckcui. The completeness of the links reflected in the thesaurus article and the accuracy of establishing these links ultimately determine the completeness and accuracy of the search when referring to this hypertext article. There are the following types of kinship or relationships: species - genus, genus - species, object - process, process - object, whole - part, part - whole, cause - effect, effect - cause, etc. The user receives more general information on generic the type of connection, and according to the species - specific information without repetition general information. from generic themes. Thus, the depth of text indexing depends on generic relations. The list of titles of related thesaurus articles is a local reference tool, which contains links only to the next of kin. A hypertext thesaurus can be represented as a network: nodes contain text descriptions of an object (informational articles), network edges indicate the existence of a connection between objects and the type of relationship. In hypertext, the search engine is not divided into a thesaurus and an array of search images-documents, as in conventional information retrieval systems. In hypertext, the entire search apparatus is implemented as a hypertext thesaurus.

The list of main topics contains the titles of all reference articles for which there are no genus-species, part-whole links. It is desirable that the list occupies no more than one panel of the screen.

The alphabetical dictionary includes a list of titles of all information articles in alphabetical order.

Manually compiled hypertexts have been used for a long time, these are reference books, encyclopedias, and dictionaries equipped with a developed system of links. The scope of hypertext technologies is very wide. These are publishing activities, library work, educational systems, development of documentation, laws, reference manuals, databases, knowledge bases, etc. The most common systems are HyperCard, HyperStudio, SuperCard, QuickTime by Apple for Macintosh personal computers, Linkway for IBM; from domestic -FLEXISII2.05, automated system for the formation and processing of hypertext (ASFOG), etc. In most modern software products, all help (help) is based on the use of menu-based hypertext technology.

Microsoft has released the MicrosoftAssistantforWord utility for creating and editing hypertext documents in HyperTextMarkupLanguage(HTML) and converting WinWord files to HTML format.

multimedia technology

Multimedia is an interactive technology that provides work with still images, video, animation, text and sound. One of the first tools for creating multimedia technology was hypertext technology, which provides work with textual information, images, sound, and speech. IN this case hypertext technology acted as an author's software tool.

The emergence of multimedia systems was facilitated by technical progress: the operative and external memory of computers increased, wide graphical capabilities of computers appeared, and the quality of video equipment increased; laser CDs, etc.

Television, video and audio equipment, unlike computers, deals with an analog signal. Hollow faced the problem of docking heterogeneous equipment with a computer and managing it. The image of a still picture on the screen with a resolution of 512 x 482 dots (pixels) will require 250 KB of storage for se. However, the image quality is poor. It required the development of software and hardware methods for data compression and scanning. Such devices and methods have been developed with compression ratios of 100:1 and 160:1. This made it possible to place about an hour of fully voiced video on one CD. JPEG and MPEG are considered to be the most progressive methods of compression and scanning. Sound cards (SoundBluster), multimedia cards were developed, which the device but implement the translation algorithm analog signal to discrete. A read-only memory device has been connected to the CDs

With Jobe in 1988 co. yes i fundamentally new type personal computer -NeXT, in which the basic means of mula and media systems are embedded in the hardware, hardware and software. New powerful central processors 68030 and 68040 were used, a signal processor DSP, which provided sound and image processing, speech synthesis and recognition, image compression, and color manipulation. The amount of RAM was 32 MB, erasable optical discs, built-in as standard network controllers, which allow you to connect to the network, methods of compression, scanning, etc. are provided. The amount of hard drive memory is 105 MB and 1.4 GB.

NeXT technology is a new step in human-machine communication. So far, we have been working with the WIMP(window, image, menu, pointer) interface. NeXT makes it possible to work with the SILK(speech, image, language, knowledge) interface. NeXT includes an electronic multimedia mail system that allows you to exchange messages such as speech, text, graphic information, etc.

Many operating systems support multimedia technology - Windows3.1, DOS7.0, OS/2. The Windows-95 operating system included multimedia hardware that allows users to play digital video, audio, motion graphics, and connect various musical synthesizers and instruments. Wmdows-95 developed special version file system to support high-quality audio, video, and animation playback. Media files are stored on a CD-ROM, hard drive, or network server. Digitized video is usually stored in files with the .AVI extension, audio information in files with the .WAV extension, audio in the form of a MIDI interface with the .M1D extension. To support them, a file subsystem has been developed that provides information transfer from CD-ROMs optimal speed, which is essential when playing audio and video information.

Even from such a brief enumeration of the possibilities of multimedia technology, it is clear that there is a convergence of the market for computers, software, consumer goods, and capital goods of both. There is a trend towards the development of multimedia accelerators. Multimedia accelerator - software and hardware that combines the basic capabilities of graphics accelerators with one or more multimedia functions that usually require additional devices to be installed on the computer. Multimedia features include digital video filtering and scaling, hardware-assisted digital video compression, acceleration of graphics operations related to 3D graphics(3D), support for "live" video, the presence of a composite video output, output of a TV signal (television) to the monitor. The graphics accelerator is also a software and hardware tool for accelerating graphics operations: transferring a data block, painting an object, and supporting a hardware cursor. There is a development of microcircuitry in order to increase the performance of electronic devices and minimize their geometric dimensions. Microcircuits that perform the functions of components sound card, are combined on a single chip the size of a matchbox. There is no limit to this.

By 1991, more than 60 software packages with multimedia technology had been developed. At the same time, the standard did not exist, and in the same year, the firms fvliuosoft and IBM about shovrsmsnio presented two standards IBMnpe \ south-iaianandart Multimediai \ licosoftMPC standards Now! standards have been developed for drivesCD-ROMSoundBluster-sound cards, MIDI-nntsrfsis- a standard for connecting various musical synthesizers, DCl-interface - an interface with display drivers that allow you to play full-screen video information, MCI-interface - an interface for controlling various multimedia devices, standards for graphics adapters Apple collaborated with FuiiFilm to develop the first industry standard, IEEEP1394, for the development of the FIREWire chipset, enabling many consumer products, such as camcorders, to be digitally interfaced for use in multimedia technology.

The advent of multimedia systems has revolutionized education, the computer trend, it, and other areas of professional activity. possible technologies) to an anthropocentric approach (the industry is driven by the market) It became possible to dynamically track the individual demands of the world market, which is reflected in the trend towards small-scale production The multimedia phenomenon democratizes scientific, artistic and industrial creativity

Samos multimedia technology has been widely used in the field of education. Video encyclopedias have been created on many school subjects, museums, cities, travel routes. Their number continues to grow. Game situational simulators have been created, which is shrinking! learning time Thus, the gameplay merges with learning, and in regultags we have a "theater of presentation" and generalization implements creative self-expression Creates it also a dialogue ovos cinema, where the consumer can control the course of the spectacle from the display keyboard by means of replicas, if A speech recognition board is connected to a computer Video games provide a tool for manipulating the public consciousness Negative here is a cult of violence multimedia technologies (MIU, MESI, MPEI, Yaroslavsky 1 U, etc.) Of interest is the experience of the Moscow State University of Economics, Statistics and Informatics, where it was convened IIpiitu guiuamuioiiHoiooeducation, which was based on th England, Germany! ol india, sweden

Automated workplace of a managerial worker as part of the EIS

As a rule, the user-economist is well acquainted with the subject technology, the sequence of operations on data and the structure of their relationships. The latter can be expressed both in computational and relational form.

Functional technology is a synthesis of providing and subject technologies, carried out according to certain rules. Being a kind of data transformation environment and at the same time part of the EIS, it is based on a platform that consists of technical, software (DBMS, OS, etc.), organizational (staff) and information parts.

Ultimately, the user-economist, the user-manager can use both individual IT and their combination, combined into a certain complex ARM) The purpose of the ARM is to provide information support for the formation and decision-making to achieve the goals set for the decision maker

With the advent of personal computers, it became possible to install them directly at the worker's workplace and equip them with new tools oriented to a non-programmer user. - information support of decisions. In other words, an automated workplace is a certain part of the EIS, isolated in accordance with the facility management structure and the existing target distribution system and designed in the form of the most sophisticated software hardware complex.

An automated workplace contains a fully functional information technology or part of it. What part of the FIT is assigned to one or another workstation is determined primarily by the decomposition of goals in the object management structure. Such a distribution of FIT on workstations should not violate the requirements of the subject technology itself. The imposition of FIT on the management structure allows you to create distributed system solving subject problems. The distribution between the computers of the FIT participants can concern either the stored data or the processes of processing this data.

The decision support system assumes an active dialogue interaction between the user and the EIS, taking into account the education, specifics, style and experience of the user's work.

Usually there are three phases of decision-making (Fig. 2 9):

intellectual - study of the environment in which the decision will be made;

design - developer<а и опенка возможных альтернатив действий; выбор - принят не решения, т с. выбор одной альтернативы.

Fig 2.9. Cycle of development of alternatives

Decision support is always targeted and can be reflected in the form of:

a set of information that allows the user to assess the current situation and develop solutions;

preparation of possible decisions, one of which will be taken by a manager;

assessing the change in the state of the control object when making a decision, i.e. answering the question: "What will happen if?".

It should be noted that in most cases only the first possibility is implemented in the workstation - the preparation of information for the analysis of the situation, on the basis of which the employee could carry out such an analysis and further develop a management decision.

Preparation of solutions without the direct participation of an employee is possible only in an expert system (ES), which is designed to answer the question: "How to do it?". ES is a system designed to recreate the experience and knowledge of high-level professionals and use this knowledge in the management process. Such systems are developed for operation in narrow areas of application, since their use requires large computer resources for processing and storing knowledge. At the heart of the construction of expert systems is the knowledge base, which is based on knowledge representation models. Due to the large financial and time costs in Russian EIS, expert systems are not widely used.

EIS, supporting the decision-making process of managerial employees, should be built in such a way as to support the implementation of the goals facing them. One of the most common forms of EIS organization is a system of interconnected and interacting workstations.

When using any information technology, attention should be paid to the availability of data protection tools, programs, computer systems. Therefore, the degree of protection of workstations can serve as one of the signs of their classification.

When classifying information technologies according to the type of information carrier, paper and paperless technologies are distinguished. Paper technology uses paper media as input and output documents. Paperless technology involves the use of network technologies based on local and global computer networks, advanced office equipment, electronic documents.

When choosing information technology, a number of factors should be taken into account: total sales (only one out of ten packages finds demand on the market); increasing the productivity of the user (the user does only what the computer cannot do); reliability; the degree of information and computer security; required resources of memory and other devices; functional capacity (provided opportunities); ease of use; time for training; the quality of the intelligent interface; the ability to connect to a computer network; price. The operating software and interface with it should also be taken into account.

If we take the organizational structure of management as a criterion, then we can conditionally single out the workstation of the manager, the workstation of the managerial worker at the middle and operational levels. In accordance with the principles of selective distribution of information, these persons need completely different information support.

The manager needs generalized, reliable and complete information to make the right decisions. He needs tools for analyzing and planning various areas of the enterprise. These tools include economic-mathematical, statistical methods; methods of modeling, analysis of various areas of the enterprise, forecasting. Of the supporting technologies, it is necessary: ​​tabular, graphic, word processors, e-mail, DBMS.

The workstation of managers of middle and operational levels is used to make decisions and implement professional activities in a specific subject area: workstations of storekeepers, tellers, bank employees, employees of insurance companies, etc. For each such direction, it is possible to determine the component workstations. For example, an accountant's workstation is focused on all areas of accounting, but separate workstations for settlements with personnel for remuneration, accounting for fixed assets, etc. can be allocated, which depends on the subject technologies used in this area, the division of goals and functions between management workers.

The range of workstations and the totality of IT included in them is influenced by: the management structure that has developed in the institution; technologies of subject areas; distribution of responsibilities and goals among employees. In other words, the nomenclature of the AWP is a function of the management structure of the institution, the content of the AWP is a function of the implemented goals of the decision maker. Does domain technology have a decisive influence on the structure of the workstation? To answer this question, it is necessary to classify workstations on the basis of ^ "inclusion or non-inclusion in them in an explicit or implicit form of subject technologies. Such technologies are included in most software tools that support decision-making in a particular area. This inevitably makes the software product less flexible , requires it to be more parameterized so that it can be adapted without reprogramming and thus sold to as many customers as possible.

Some, in our opinion, the advantage of the rigid inclusion of functional and supporting technologies in a software product is the possibility of using a low-skilled subject matter specialist, since the user's actions here are declarative, not procedural. Thus, deep knowledge of subject technologies is not required from him, they were laid in the workstation by the developer

However, in other products, subject technologies are classified on the basis of typing, unification for a given class of tasks and are included in the body of the EIS in the form of a certain library, the elements of which may or may not be available to different users. In this case, the elements become procedural in nature, since the user himself must know at what point which IT should be used.

The parameters of the elements of the information technology design system are interdependent. Considering the main characteristics of technological processes of data processing, generalized indicators are used with their further detailing at other levels of analysis of the data processing system. These parameters include: the economic effect of automating the processing of OA data; capital expenditures on computer and organizational equipment; cost of designing technological processes for OD; resources on...

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A) Technologies focused on the received processing, transmission of information using technical means

C. Getting systematic information about the progress of production

I. Ensuring national security in the economic sphere.

II. THE MAIN STAGES OF STUDYING THE INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MILITARY PERSONNEL.

The main goal of processing information sources is to establish factors and measure their impact on a particular indicator of the activity of the economy, as well as to reveal causal relationships between various factors and economic processes.

The process of processing information sources includes:

· Validation;

Bringing indicators into a comparable form;

simplification of digital data;

carrying out analytical calculations;

drawing up analytical tables, drawing conclusions;

study of processed materials.

Verification of the reliability of information is carried out in two stages.

The first is the formal-logical control, which checks the completeness of reporting, the correctness and timeliness of its preparation, completeness is the coverage of all departments of the facility, the availability of all reporting forms, the completion of all sections of the forms, all analytical tables for the program. Correctness is a check of the correspondence of lines and columns, the names of codes according to a single classifier, the presence of signatures, dates and the inadmissibility of unspecified corrections.

The second stage is a counting check, which is carried out in several stages. First of all, check the continuity of indicators. The essence of such a check is to check the compliance of the amounts given, for example, in the report for the previous quarter in the column at the end of the period, and the data that are reflected in the report for the reporting period in the column at the beginning of the period. Then check the correctness of the arithmetic calculations. If, as a result, a certain amount is indicated in the “Working capital” column, then it should be the sum of inventories, Money and illegal payments.

After filling in the reporting forms, a knowledgeable accountant controls himself on the basis of a correlation table when they check the coincidence of the amounts reflected in different reporting forms. So, for example, if a certain amount is given in the form No. I "Balance" in the line "Authorized capital", then it should also be in the form No. 5 "Appendix to the balance sheet". Such links, when they check the same figure given in different reporting forms, are called simple. There are also complex linkages when data provided in several reporting forms are used for verification. So, they draw up a balance of marketable products, where they use the data of form No. 2, the general ledger, inventory acts, etc.

To compile the balance of marketable products, the following formula is used:

PP \u003d OH + VP - OK + I - N,

Where RP is the sale of products,
VP - output,
OK - balances of unsold products at the end of the period,
OH - the balance of unsold products at the beginning of the period.
I and N - surpluses and shortcomings of products identified during the inventory.

In practice, several methods of checking economic information are used. These include:

1. "Counter" check. During this check, the identity of the amounts reflected in the reporting forms of the analyzed object and the amounts actually received on the accounts of business partners is specified. For example, the company's documents reflect that it transferred 8 million rubles to the employment fund in March, therefore, the same amount should be reflected in the documents of the employment fund for March or April, depending on the date of transfer.

2. The correctness of the calculation of individual indicators is checked. So, for example, the sale of inventory items to employees of the enterprise on account of wages must be previously reflected in the accounts for the sale of products, works and services, or other sales. In other words, these amounts should increase the sales turnover, and, consequently, the taxable base for calculating taxes.

3. When determining "cost" indicators, the correctness of attribution to the cost price for each item of expenditure is checked. All amounts included in D 20 of the general ledger account should be carefully checked, but settlement accounts 60, 62, 71, 76 are especially closely monitored.

4. When determining the amounts reflected as material costs, it is controlled:

o the correctness of attributing deviations from the planned cost of procurement of materials to the cost;

o the legitimacy of write-offs to production costs of shortages in excess of the norms of natural attrition and losses.

In the practical implementation of this kind of checks, they are guided by current instructions and other regulations.

The process of bringing the indicators into a comparable form is caused by the fact that the indicators are calculated in different assessments, often differ in structure, construction methods, are not based on the same bases, the influence of inflation is great, etc. The indicators are brought into a comparable form in several ways. First, you can recalculate the basic and actual volumes in one price. Secondly, the actual data can be corrected for the officially registered inflation index published by the statistical authorities. Thirdly, the basic values ​​are conditionally calculated, recalculated for the actual volume and assortment. This technique is used for factor analysis of costs per ruble of products, profits from the sale of products, works and services.

Simplifying digital data is rounding, summing, etc. in order to reduce technical work and, in particular, computational activities, as well as to give indicators better visibility and clarity.

However, such a procedure should not lead to “damage” to the quality of analytical calculations. For example, it is advisable to analyze the wage fund for the whole enterprise in million rubles, and the analysis of the level of the average wage of one employee in thousand rubles. etc.

The stage of analytical calculations is carried out using all elements of the general analysis methodology and means of computational and computer technology. Among the elements of the general methodology of analysis, one should include a system of analytical indicators, an interconnected study of economic processes, battle, detailing, grouping, elimination, generalization. The general analysis methodology is focused on a general assessment of the dynamics of the studied characteristics, taking into account the influence of positive and negative factors, determining the amounts of identified reserves and developing practical advice aimed at improving performance.

To formalize the results of the analysis, illustrating the conclusions, analytical tables are compiled. The number of columns in the tables should be optimal, possibly using several bases for comparison (previous period, data from another company, etc.). The table must be neatly designed in accordance with the normative control. In the upper right corner there should be an indication "Table No". The number can be affixed both as a whole for the work and for subsections. For example, Table 3.1. is the first table in the third subsection.

After one interval, skipping 15-17 mm, the name of the table is indicated from the red line. The heading of the table is drawn with a line and numbered, while the columns for numbers are numbered with numbers, and indicators, units of measurement and other explanations with letters.

The final stage in the processing of economic information is the stage of studying waste materials. At this stage, it is necessary to reveal all the interrelations and interdependencies between individual indicators and factors, and the influence of, first of all, quantitative, and then qualitative factors is determined.

5. Technology for processing economic information

It is advisable to process economic information in the created ASOEI on the platform of the "client-server" technology. The information is stored on the server. The user in the course of work requests the necessary data, the information is processed on the server and the user receives the generated data on his computer (workstation). This form of organization of database files provides network access to information for many users at the same time.

The developed AEOIE should exclude duplication of data entry by different users of the system. The information must be entered once. Further, based on the created programs, users should be able to receive the entered information in the original and structured form.

If it is necessary to interact with other AEOIE via the Internet, then it is necessary to ensure the comparability of information and the compatibility of interacting software modules. For example, to work with a bank current account (accounts), it is advisable to install a client-bank system.

6. System maintenance

Maintenance of the AEOI should be carried out on a regular basis. system administrator and programmers. In order to save the information used in the system, it is necessary to create archival copies used data. Modern means processing of information allow for automatic archiving of data at specified intervals.

In addition, on the computer that performs the functions of the server, 2 hard drives, one of which will contain the working files of the database, and the other will function in the "mirroring" mode - automatically recording all changes on the first disk.

In order to protect information from viruses, it is necessary to install anti-virus programs at each workplace that will work in real time. Necessary constant update versions of these anti-virus programs in order to achieve high efficiency of their application.

In the event of failures in the operation of the hardware complex and general system software, the system administrator must eliminate the problems. In case of failure situations in the operation of the application software, the programmer must fix the problem.

7. Information security

The information contained in the AEOIE must be protected from unauthorized access and possible use it for dishonest purposes. Therefore, it is necessary to have a system for protecting the information used in ASOEI. First of all, this is the differentiation of access to information depending on the functions and powers assigned to each employee. Next, you need to use a password system to access information. Access to passwords should be as difficult as possible in order to exclude possible information leakage, the passwords themselves should be changed periodically.

The enterprise should create a guiding document that defines the tasks, procedures for working with information and the responsibility of employees for violations of established regime work with information.

In addition, it is necessary to use a complex of hardware to ensure the protection of information, which will include electronic keys- devices connected to the computer, combination locks to restrict access to information. The server must keep a record of working with information for each user, while providing the opportunity to obtain data on who, and when, used certain system files, what operations and procedures were performed.

Important role in the protection of information should be assigned to the security service.

8. Evaluation of the effectiveness of ASOEI

The AESEI being created should be effective from various points of view. The system from the software and hardware side will allow you to quickly and efficiently input and exchange data both within the network and outside it. The topology of the network allows us to talk about stability created network, since the minimum number of intermediate links is involved in its design.

Many of the frequently performed tasks of an enterprise's AEOI are automated.

Development and maintenance costs created system ASOEI will be approximately:

- for the purchase of computers, office equipment and network equipment - 25 thousand US dollars;

– acquisition of licensed software, application software packages – USD 8,000;

- for laying, installation and adjustment of the network - 3 thousand US dollars.

– maintenance of the client-bank system, updating the legal and anti-virus database– 0.3 thousand US dollars;

- for the purchase Supplies for the operation of the network - 0.2 thousand US dollars.

Thus, the total cost of the creation of ASOEI will be 35 thousand US dollars, monthly maintenance - at least 0.5 thousand US dollars.

Conclusion

The market of information goods and services is the most dynamically developing today. Information today is considered as one of the most important resources for the development of society, along with material, energy and human resources.

The developed ASOEI system of an advertising enterprise should have high flexibility, adaptability, reliability and simplicity, have an open architecture, communication, provide communication with the external environment of the enterprise via the Internet or corporate network.

The costs for the development, maintenance and operation of the system being created AEOEI should be optimal.

It is expedient to carry out the technical equipment of the workplaces of the employees of the enterprise in order to optimize the costs of creating ASOEI based on the characteristics, volumes and technology of information processing.

Maintenance of ASOEI should be carried out regularly by the system administrator and programmers. In order to preserve the information used in the system, it is necessary to create archival copies of the data used.

The information contained in the AEOIE must be protected from unauthorized access and its possible use for dishonest purposes. Therefore, it is necessary to have a system for protecting the information used in ASOEI.

The total cost of setting up ASOEI will be 35 thousand US dollars, monthly maintenance - at least 0.5 thousand US dollars.

List of used literature

1. Gladkiy A.A. 1C: enterprise 8.0. - St. Petersburg: Triton, 2005.

2. Tambovtsev V.L. "The Fifth Market: The Economic Problems of Information Production". M.; Publishing house of Moscow State University. 2003.

3. "Prospects for the informatization of society." M.: Russian Academy Sciences. Series: Information, science, society. 2003.

4. Schreider Yu. “On the phenomenon of the information product” // NTI Ser. 1. 2004. No. 11.

Technology and methods of processing economic information

2.2.1. Main classes of technologies

Let's give one more definition of technology - presented in the project form, i.e. in the form of formalized representations ( technical descriptions, drawings, diagrams, instructions, manuals, etc.), a concentrated expression of scientific knowledge and practical experience, which allows rationally organizing any process to save labor costs, energy, material resources or social time required for the implementation of this process.

It seems appropriate to distinguish three main classes of technologies:

Production - provide optimization of processes in the field of material production of goods and services and their public distribution;

Informational - designed to improve the efficiency of processes occurring in information sphere society, including science, culture, education, means mass media and information communications;

Social - focused on the rational organization of social processes.

Kuznetsov P.G. proposed as universal measure costs of social labor to use the concept of social time introduced by academician V.G. Afanasiev. Based on their ideas, it is possible to propose the use of the concept of social time as a general indicator for quantifying the characteristics of any kind of technology. Indeed, the goal of technology is the rational organization of some production, social or information process. In this case, savings can be achieved not only in the astronomical time necessary for the implementation of this process, but also in material resources, energy or equipment that provide this process. The costs of social labor for the production and delivery of these providing means to the place of implementation of the technological process we are considering, in turn, can also be expressed by a certain amount of social time costs. A well-founded conclusion follows from this - social time is a universal general indicator of any technological processes.

In accordance with the above definition, information technology is a concentrated expression of scientific knowledge and practical experience presented in a project form, which allows one or another information process to be rationally organized to save labor, energy or material resources.

Information processes are widely used in various fields of activity modern society. They are often components of other, more complex processes - social, management, production.

home distinguishing feature information technology lies in their targeted focus on optimizing information processes, the output of which is information. As a general criterion for the effectiveness of information technologies, we will use the saving of social time necessary for the implementation of the information process, organized in accordance with the requirements and recommendations of this technology.

The criterion of saving social time requires, first of all, the improvement of the most massive information processes, the optimization of which should give the greatest gain due to their wide and repeated use.

2.2.2. Basic Methods economic information processing

One of the main purposes of information technology is the collection, processing and provision of information for making managerial decisions. In this regard, it is convenient to consider the methods of processing economic information in terms of the phases of the life cycle of the managerial decision-making process: 1) diagnostics of problems; 2) development (generation) of alternatives; 3) choice of solution; 4) implementation of the solution.

The methods used in the problem diagnosis phase ensure its reliable and most Full description. They include (Fig. 2.2) methods of comparison, factor analysis, modeling (economic and mathematical methods, methods of queuing theory, inventory theory, economic analysis) and forecasting (qualitative and quantitative methods). All these methods collect, store, process and analyze information, fix the most important events. The set of methods depends on the nature and content of the problem, the timing and funds that are allocated at the stage of formulation.

Methods for developing (generating) alternatives are shown in fig. 2.3. At this stage, information gathering methods are also used, but unlike the first stage, which searches for answers to questions like “What happened?” and “For what reasons?”, here they determine how the problem can be solved, with the help of what management actions.

When developing alternatives (methods of managerial actions to achieve the goal), methods are used as individual

dual and collective problem solving. Individual methods are characterized by the least time consumption, but these solutions are not always optimal. When generating alternatives, an intuitive approach or methods of logical (rational) problem solving are used. To assist the decision maker (DM), problem solving experts are involved in the development of options for alternatives (Fig. 2.4). Collective problem solving is carried out according to the model of brainstorming / assault (Fig. 2.5), Delphi and nominal group technology.

In brainstorming, we are dealing with an unrestricted discussion, which is carried out mainly in groups consisting of 4-10 participants. Brainstorming alone is also possible. How more difference between the participants, the more fruitful the result (due to different experience, temperament, work areas).

Participants do not need deep and long training and experience in this method. However, the quality of the ideas put forward and the time spent will show how individual participants or target groups familiar with the principles and basic rules of this method. It is positive that the participants have knowledge and experience in the area under consideration. The duration of the brainstorming session can be selected from several minutes to several hours, the duration of 20-30 minutes is generally accepted.

When using the brainstorming method in small groups, two principles should be strictly adhered to: refrain from evaluating ideas (here quantity turns into quality) and follow four basic rules - criticism is excluded, free association is welcome, the number of options is desirable, combinations and improvements are sought.

The choice of a decision occurs most often in conditions of certainty, risk and uncertainty (Fig. 2.6). The difference between these states of the environment is determined by the amount of information, the degree of knowledge of the decision maker of the essence of phenomena, the conditions for making decisions.

Certainty conditions are such decision-making conditions (the state of knowledge about the essence of phenomena) when the decision maker can determine in advance the result (outcome) of each alternative offered for selection. This situation is typical for tactical

short term solutions. In this case, the decision maker has detailed information, i.e. comprehensive knowledge of the situation to make a decision.

Risk conditions are characterized by such a state of knowledge about the essence of the phenomenon, when the decision maker knows the probabilities possible consequences implementation of each alternative. The conditions of risk and uncertainty are characterized by the so-called conditions of multivalued expectations of the future situation in the external environment. In this case, the decision maker must choose an alternative without having an accurate idea of ​​the factors external environment and their impact on the outcome. Under these conditions, the outcome, the result of each alternative is a function of conditions - environmental factors (utility function), which is not always able to foresee the decision maker. To provide and analyze the results of the selected alternative strategies, a decision matrix, also called a payoff matrix, is used.

Uncertainty conditions are such a state environment(knowledge about the essence of phenomena), when each alternative can have several outcomes, and the probability of these outcomes is unknown. The uncertainty of the decision-making environment depends on the relationship between the amount of information and its reliability. The more uncertain the external environment, the more difficult it is to accept effective solutions. The decision-making environment also depends on the degree of dynamics, mobility of the environment, i.e. the speed of ongoing changes in the decision-making conditions. Changing conditions can occur as a result of the development of the organization, i.e. its acquisition of the ability to solve new problems, the ability to update, and under the influence of factors external to the organization that cannot be regulated by the organization. Choice best solution under conditions of uncertainty essentially depends on the degree of this uncertainty, i.e. on what information the decision maker has. The choice of the best solution under conditions of uncertainty, when the probabilities of possible variants of conditions are unknown, but there are principles of approach to assessing the results of actions, ensures the use of the following four criteria: Wald's maximin criterion; Savage's minimax criterion; criterion of pessimism-optimism Hurwitz; Laplace criterion or Bayesian criterion.

When implementing decisions, methods of planning, organizing and monitoring the implementation of decisions are used (Fig. 2.7). Drawing up a plan for the implementation of the solution involves obtaining an answer to the questions “what, to whom and with whom, how, where and when to do?”. The answers to these questions should be documented. The main methods used in planning management decisions are network modeling and separation of duties (Fig. 2.8). The main tools of network modeling are network matrices (Fig. 2.9), where the network graph is combined with a calendar-scale time grid.

Methods for organizing the implementation of a decision include methods for compiling information table implementation of decisions (ITRR) and methods of influence and motivation.

Methods for monitoring the implementation of decisions are divided into control over intermediate and final results and control over the timing of implementation (operations in ITRR). The main purpose of control is to create a system of guarantees for the implementation of decisions, a system for ensuring the highest possible quality of a decision.