For the complete formalization of information, a simple classification is not enough, therefore, the following procedure is carried out - coding. Coding is the process of assigning symbols to objects and classification groups according to the corresponding coding system. Coding implements the translation of information expressed by one system of signs into another system, that is, the translation of a record in a natural language into a record using codes. Coding system is a set of rules for designating objects and groupings using codes. The code is a conventional designation of objects or groupings in the form of a sign or a group of signs in accordance with the adopted system. The code is based on a certain alphabet (a set of characters). The number of characters in this set is called the base of the code. There are the following types of alphabets: numeric, alphabetic and mixed.

The code is characterized by the following parameters:

basis of coding;

the structure of the code, which is understood as the distribution of signs according to characteristics and objects of classification;

the degree of information content, calculated as the quotient of dividing the total number of features by the length of the code;

redundancy factor, which is defined as the ratio of the maximum number of objects to the actual number of objects.

Certain requirements are imposed on coding methods:

the code must identify an object within a given set of classification objects;

it is desirable to provide for the use of decimal numbers and letters as the alphabet;

it is necessary to ensure, as possible, the minimum length of the code and a sufficient reserve of unoccupied positions for coding new objects without violating the structure of the classifier.

Coding methods can be of an independent nature - registration coding methods, or be based on a preliminary classification of objects - classification coding methods.

^ Registration methods There are two types of coding: ordinal and serial-ordinal. In the first case, the codes are natural numbers. Each of the objects of the classified set is encoded by assigning it a current serial number. This coding method provides a fairly large durability of the classifier with a slight redundancy of the code. This method has the greatest simplicity, uses the shortest codes and better ensures the uniqueness of each object of the classification. In addition, it provides the most simple assignment of codes to new objects that appear in the process of maintaining the classifier. A significant drawback of the ordinal coding method is the absence in the code of any specific information about the properties of an object, as well as the complexity of machine processing of information when obtaining results for a group of classification objects with the same characteristics.

In the serial-ordinal coding method, the codes are the numbers of the natural series with the assignment of individual series of these numbers (intervals of the natural series) to the objects of classification with the same characteristics. In each series, in addition to the codes of the existing classification objects, a certain number of codes are provided for the reserve.

^ Classification codes are used to reflect the classification relationships of objects and groupings and are mainly used for complex logical processing of economic information. The group of classification coding systems can be divided into two subgroups depending on which classification system is used to order objects: sequential coding systems and parallel coding systems.

^ Sequential systems encodings are characterized by the fact that they are based on a preliminary classification according to a hierarchical system. The classification object code is formed using the codes of successively located subordinate groupings obtained by the hierarchical coding method. In this case, the subordinate grouping code is formed by adding the appropriate number of digits to the parent grouping code.

^ Parallel systems encodings are characterized by the fact that they are built on the basis of the use of a facet classification system and the codes for groupings by facets are generated independently of each other.

In a parallel coding system, there are two options for writing object codes:

1. 
   Each facet and feature within a facet has its own codes, which are included in the object code. This recording method is convenient to use when objects are characterized by an unequal set of features. When forming the code of any object, only the necessary signs are taken.
2. 
   To determine groups of objects, a fixed set of features is selected and a stable order of their sequence is established, that is, a facet formula is established. In this case, it is not necessary to indicate each time the value of which of the signs is given in certain bits of the object code.

The parallel coding method has several advantages. The advantages of the method under consideration include the flexibility of the code structure due to the independence of the features, from the codes of which the code of the classification object is constructed. The method makes it possible to use, when solving specific technical, economic and social problems, codes of only those features of objects that are necessary, which makes it possible to work in each individual case with codes of short length. With this coding method, objects can be grouped according to any combination of features. The parallel coding method is well suited for machine information processing. For a specific code combination, it is easy to find out which set of characteristics the object under consideration has. In this case, a large number of code combinations can be formed from a small number of features. The set of characteristics, if necessary, can be easily supplemented by attaching a code of a new characteristic. This property of the parallel coding method is especially important when solving technical and economic problems, the composition of which often changes.

The most difficult issues that have to be solved when developing a classifier are the choice of classification and coding methods and the choice of a system of classification features. The basis of the classifier should be the most essential features of the classification, corresponding to the nature of the tasks solved with the help of the classifier. In this case, these signs can be either subordinate or non-subordinate. With subordinate classification criteria and a stable set of tasks for the solution of which the classifier is intended, it is advisable to use a hierarchical classification method, which is a sequential division of a set of objects into subordinate classification groupings. With non-subordinate classification criteria and with great dynamism of the tasks being solved, it is advisable to use the facet classification method.

An important issue is also the correct choice of the sequence for the use of classification signs according to the classification steps in the hierarchical classification method. The criterion for this is the statistics of queries to the classifier. In accordance with this criterion, at the upper steps of the classification, the classifier should use the features to which the most frequent requests will be. For the same reason, the smallest code base is chosen at the upper stages of the classification.

• Classification and its types. Information coding systems

• Classification of information circulating in the organization

• CLASSIFICATION

Classification

• Classification- a system for the distribution of objects (objects, phenomena, processes, concepts) into classes in accordance with a specific feature

• Classification system allows you to group objects and highlight certain classes, which will be characterized by a number of common properties.

• Object classification- then the procedure of grouping at a qualitative level, aimed at highlighting homogeneous properties.

• With regard to information as an object of classification, the distinguished classes are called information objects.

Classification

• Props- a logically indivisible information element that describes a certain property of an object, process, phenomenon, etc.

• For any classification, the following requirements must be met:

• completeness of coverage of objects of the considered area;

• unambiguous details;

• the ability to include new objects.

• Classifier- a systematized collection of names and codes of classification groupings.

• In the classification, the concepts are widely used classification feature(division base) and meaning classification attribute , which allow you to establish the similarity or difference of objects.

• The number of classification levels corresponding to the number of features selected as the division base characterizes depth of classification.

Hierarchical classification system

• The hierarchical classification system is built as follows:

• the initial set of elements is the 0th level and is divided, depending on the selected classification feature, into classes (groupings) that form the 1st level;

• each class of the 1st level, in accordance with its characteristic classification feature, is divided into subclasses that form the 2nd level;

• each class of the 2nd level is similarly divided into groups that form the 3rd level, etc.

• Given the rather rigid procedure for constructing the classification structure, it is necessary to determine its purpose before starting work, i.e. what properties the objects to be combined into classes should have. These properties are taken hereinafter as signs of classification.

Hierarchical classification system

• Dignity hierarchical classification system:

• ease of construction;

• the use of independent classification features in various branches of the hierarchical structure. Disadvantages of a hierarchical classification system;

• a rigid structure, which leads to the complexity of making changes, since all classification groupings have to be redistributed;

• the impossibility of grouping objects according to previously not foreseen combinations of features.

• The task is to create a hierarchical classification system for the information object "Faculty", which will allow classifying information about all students according to the following classification criteria: the faculty where he studies, the age composition of students, the gender of the student, for women - the presence of children.

An example of a hierarchical classification system

• The resulting classification system will have the following levels:

• 0th level. Information object "Faculty";

• 1st level. A classification criterion is chosen - the name of the faculty, which makes it possible to distinguish several classes with different names of faculties, in which information about all students is stored;

• 2nd level. A classification criterion is chosen - age, which has three gradations: up to 20 years old, from 20 to 30 years old, over 30 years old. For each faculty, there are three age subclasses of students;

• 3rd level. A classification feature is selected - gender. Each level 2 subclass is divided into two groups. Thus, information about students of each faculty in each age subclass is divided into two groups - men and women;

• 4th level. A classification criterion is chosen - the presence of children in women: yes, no.

An example of a hierarchical classification system

• The created hierarchical classification system has a classification depth equal to four

• Faceted classification system in contrast to the hierarchical one, it allows you to select the classification signs independently of both each other and the semantic content of the object being classified

Faceted classification system

• The classification signs are called facets (facet is a frame). Each facet ( Фi) contains a set of homogeneous values ​​of a given classification feature. Moreover, the values ​​in the facet can be arranged in an arbitrary order, although their ordering is preferable.

Faceted classification system

• Classification procedure consists in assigning to each object the corresponding values ​​from the facets. However, not all facets can be used.

• For each object, a specific grouping of facets is specified by a structural formula, which reflects their order:

• Ks = (Ф1, Ф2, ..., Фi, ..., Фn),

• where Фi- i-th facet;

• n is the number of facets.

• When constructing a faceted classification system, it is necessary that the values ​​used in different facets are not repeated.

• The facet system can be easily modified by making changes to the specific values ​​of any facet.

Faceted classification system

• Advantages of the faceted classification system:

• the ability to create a large classification capacity, i.e. using a large number of classification signs and their values ​​to create groupings;

• the ability to easily modify the entire classification system without changing the structure of existing groupings.

• The disadvantage of the faceted classification system is the complexity of its construction, since it is necessary to take into account the whole variety of classification features.

• Using the same information as for the hierarchical classification example, we will develop a faceted classification system.

• Let's group and present in the form of a table all the classification features by facets:

• facet Faculty name with five faculty names;
• facet age with three age groups;
• facet floor with two gradations;
• facet children with two gradations.

Example of a faceted classification system

• The structural formula of any class can be represented as:

• Ks =(Faculty, Age, Gender, Children)

• By assigning specific values ​​to each facet, we get the following classes:

• K1 =(Faculty of Radio Engineering, under 20 years old, man, there are children);
• K2 =(Faculty of Commerce, 20 to 30 years old, male, no children);
• K3 =(Faculty of Mathematics, age under 20, woman, no children), etc.

• An example of a faceted classification system for the Faculty information object

• To organize the search for information, to maintain thesauri (dictionaries), a descriptor (descriptive) classification system is effectively used, the language of which is close to the natural language of description of information objects.

• It is especially widely used in the library search system.

Descriptor classification system

• The essence of the descriptor classification method is as follows:

• a set of keywords or phrases is selected that describe a specific subject area or a set of homogeneous objects. Moreover, among the keywords there may be synonyms;
• selected keywords and phrases are exposed normalization, those. from the set of synonyms, one or several of the most used are selected;
• a descriptor dictionary is created, i.e. a dictionary of keywords and phrases selected as a result of the normalization procedure.

• Students' progress is considered as an object of classification.

• Key words can be selected: grade, exam, credit, teacher, student, semester, subject name.
• There are no synonyms here, and therefore the specified keywords can be used as a descriptor dictionary.

An example of a descriptor classification system

• The subject area is chosen educational activity in a higher educational institution.

• Key words can be selected: student, learner, learner, teacher, teacher, teacher, lecturer, assistant, associate professor, professor, colleague, faculty, university unit, audience, room, lecture, practical lesson, lesson, etc.
• Among the specified keywords, there are synonyms, for example: student, learner, learner, teacher, teacher, teacher, faculty, university unit, etc. After normalization, the descriptor dictionary will consist of the following words: student, teacher, lecturer, assistant, assistant professor, professor, faculty, classroom, lecture, practice, etc.

Descriptor classification system

• Relationships are established between descriptors, which make it possible to expand the scope of information retrieval. Links can be of three types:

• synonymous indicating a certain set of keywords as synonyms;
• generic reflecting the inclusion of a certain class of objects in a more representative class;
• associative connecting descriptors with common properties.

• Example

• Synonymous relationship: student-student-learner.

• Generic relationship: university-faculty-department.

• Associative connection: student-exam-professor-audience.

• CODING

Coding system

• Coding system- a set of rules for the code designation of objects.

• The coding system is used to replace the name of an object with a symbol (code) in order to ensure convenient and more efficient processing of information.

• The code is based on an alphabet consisting of letters, numbers and other symbols.

• The code is characterized by:

• the length- the number of positions in the code;
• structure- the order of arrangement in the code of symbols used to designate a classification feature

Coding system

• The procedure for assigning a code to an object is called coding .

• There are two groups of methods used in the coding system, which form:

• classification coding system, focused on preliminary classification of objects either on the basis of a hierarchical system or on the basis of a facet system;
• registration coding system, does not require preliminary classification of objects.

Coding system

• A coding system using different methods

Classification coding. Sequential coding.

• Sequential coding used for a hierarchical classification structure.

• The essence of the method is as follows: first, the code of the senior grouping of the 1st level is written, then the code of the grouping of the 2nd level, then the code of the grouping of the 3rd level, etc. The result is a code combination, each bit of which contains information about the specifics of the selected group at each level of the hierarchical structure

• A sequential coding system has the same advantages and disadvantages as a hierarchical classification system.

• Let's carry out the coding of information classified using a hierarchical scheme.

• The number of code groupings will be determined by the classification depth and equal to 4,

• Before you start coding, you need to decide on the alphabet, i.e. what characters will be used.

• For greater clarity, we will choose the decimal number system -10 Arabic digits.

• Analysis of the classification scheme shows that the length of the code is determined by 4 decimal places, and the coding of the grouping at each level can be done by sequential numbering from left to right.

Classification coding. Sequential coding example

• 1st (senior) category is allocated for the classification attribute "Faculty name" and has the following meanings: 1 - commercial; 2 - information systems; 3 - for the next name of the faculty, etc .;
• The 2nd category is allocated for the classification attribute "age" and has the following meanings: 1 - up to 20 years; 2 - from 20 to 30 years old; 3 - over 30 years old;
• The 3rd category is allocated for the classification criterion "sex" and has the following meanings: 1 - men; 2 - women;
• The 4th category is allocated for the classification criterion "the presence of children in women" and has the following meanings; 1 - there are children; 2 - no children, 0 - for men, since such information is not required.

Classification coding. Sequential coding example

• The adopted coding system makes it easy to decrypt any grouping code, for example:

• 1310 - students of the commercial faculty, over 30 years old men;
• 2221 - students of the Faculty of Information Systems, from 20 to 30 years old, women with children.

Classification coding. Parallel coding

• Parallel coding used for the faceted classification system.

• The essence of the method is as follows: all facets are encoded independently of each other; a certain number of code bits are allocated for the values ​​of each facet.

• The parallel coding system has the same advantages and disadvantages as the faceted classification system.

• Let's carry out the coding of the information classified using the facet scheme.

• The number of code groupings is determined by the number of facets and is equal to 4.

• Let's choose the decimal number system as the encoding alphabet, which will allow one digit to be allocated for the facet values ​​and have a code length equal to 4.

• Unlike sequential coding, for a hierarchical classification system, this method does not matter the coding order of the facets.

Classification coding. Parallel coding example

• In general, the code can be written as XXXX, where X is the value of the decimal place.

• Consider the structure of the code, starting with the most significant bit:

• The 1st (most significant) digit is allocated for the "stake" facet and has the following meanings: 1 - men; 2 - women;
• The 2nd category is allocated for the facet "the presence of children in women" and has the following meanings: 1 - there are children; 2 - no children; 0 - for men, since such information is not required;
• The 3rd digit is allocated for the "age" facet and has the following values: 1 - up to 20 years; 2 - from 20 to 30 years old; 3 - over 30 years old;
• The 4th category is allocated for the "Faculty name" facet and has the following meanings: 1 - radio engineering, 2 - mechanical engineering, 3 - commercial; 4 - information systems; 5 - mathematical, etc.

Classification coding. Parallel coding example

• The adopted coding system makes it easy to decipher any number of groupings, for example:

• 2135 - women over the age of 30 with children and students of the Faculty of Mathematics;
• 1021 - men between the ages of 20 and 30 who are students of the Faculty of Radio Engineering.

Registration coding

Ordinal system coding assumes sequential numbering of objects with natural numbers. This order can be random or determined after preordering the objects, for example alphabetically. This method is used when the number of objects is small, for example, coding the names of university departments, coding students in a study group.

Serial-ordinal system coding provides for the preliminary selection of groups of objects that make up a series, and then in each series, the objects are serially numbered. Each series will also have a sequential numbering. At its core, the serial-ordinal system is mixed: classifying and identifying. It is used when the number of groups is small.

Classification of information according to various criteria

• Any classification is always relative. One and the same object can be classified according to different criteria or criteria.

• There are often situations when, depending on the environmental conditions, an object can be attributed to different classification groups.

• These considerations are especially relevant when classifying types of information without taking into account its subject orientation, since it can often be used in different conditions, by different consumers, for different purposes.

Classification of information according to various criteria

• Classification of information circulating in the organization

Classification of information by place of origin

• Input information is information supplied to the firm or its divisions.

• Output information is information coming from a firm to another firm, organization (division).

• One and the same information can be input for one firm, and for another that generates it, output. In relation to the object of management (company or its subdivision: workshop, department, laboratory) information can be defined both internal and external.

• Internal information arises inside the object, external information - outside the object.

Classification of information by stage of processing

• Primary information is information that arises directly in the process of the object's activity and is recorded at the initial stage.

• Secondary information is information that is obtained as a result of processing primary information and can be intermediate and resultant.

• Intermediate information is used as input for subsequent calculations.

• The resulting information is obtained in the process of processing primary and intermediate information and is used to develop management decisions.

Classification of information by display method

• Text information is a collection of alphabetic, numeric and special characters, with the help of which information is presented on a physical medium (paper, image on the display screen).

• Graphic information is various kinds of graphs, diagrams, diagrams, pictures, etc.

• Variable information reflects the actual quantitative and qualitative characteristics of the production and economic activities of the firm. It can vary for each case, both by purpose and by quantity. For example, the number of products produced per shift, the weekly cost of delivering raw materials, the number of machines that are in good condition, etc.

• Permanent (conditionally permanent) information is information that is invariable and reusable over a long period of time.

Classification of stability information

• Permanent information can:

• constant reference information includes a description of the constant properties of an object in the form of signs that are stable for a long time. For example, an employee's personnel number, employee's profession, shop number, etc .;

• Permanent regulatory information includes local, industry and national codes. For example, the amount of income tax, the standard for the quality of products of a certain type, the size of the minimum wage, the tariff scale for civil servants;

• permanent planning information contains planned indicators that are reused in the company. For example, a plan for the production of televisions, a plan for the training of specialists of a certain qualification.

Classification of information by control function

• By functions of management, they are usually classified economic information.

• Planned information - information about the parameters of the control object for the future period.

• Regulatory Reference Information contains a variety of regulatory and reference data. It is rarely updated.

• Accounting information is information that characterizes the activities of a firm for a certain past period of time. Based on this information, the following actions can be carried out: planning information is corrected, an analysis of the company's economic activities is made, decisions are made on more efficient work management, etc.

• Operational (current) information is information used in operational management and characterizing production processes in the current (given) period of time. Serious requirements are imposed on operational information in terms of the speed of receipt and processing, as well as the degree of its reliability.

Informatics(from fr. information - info + automatique - automation) has the widest range of applications. The main directions of this scientific discipline are:

development of computing systems and software;

information theory, which studies the processes based on the transmission, reception, transformation and storage of information;

methods that allow you to create programs for solving problems that require certain intellectual efforts when used by a person (logical inference, understanding of speech, visual perception, etc.);

system analysis, which consists in studying the purpose of the designed system and in determining the requirements that it must meet;

methods of animation, computer graphics, multimedia tools;

telecommunication facilities (global computer networks);

various applications that are used in manufacturing, science, education, medicine, trade, agriculture, etc.

Most often it is believed that informatics consists of two types of tools:

1) technical - computer hardware;

2) software - the whole variety of existing computer programs.

Sometimes one more main branch is distinguished - algorithmic means.

In the modern world, the role of informatics is enormous. It covers not only the sphere of material production, but also the intellectual, spiritual aspects of life. The increase in the production of computer equipment, the development of information networks, the emergence of new information technologies significantly affect all spheres of society: production, science, education, medicine, culture, etc.

1.2. Information concept

The word "information" in translation from Latin means information, clarification, presentation.

Information called information about objects and phenomena of the surrounding world, their properties, characteristics and state, perceived by information systems. Information is not a characteristic of a message, but of the relationship between the message and its analyzer. If there is no consumer, even a potential one, it makes no sense to talk about information.

In computer science, information is understood as a certain sequence of symbolic designations (letters, numbers, images and sounds, etc.) that carry a semantic load and are presented in a form understandable for a computer. Such a new character in such a sequence of characters increases the information volume of the message.

1.3. Information coding system

Information coding is used to unify the presentation of data of different types in order to automate the work with information.

Coding - it is an expression of data of one type through data of another type. For example, natural human languages ​​can be viewed as systems for coding concepts for expressing thoughts through speech, in addition, alphabets are systems for coding language components using graphic symbols.

In computing it is used binary encoding. The basis of this coding system is the representation of data through a sequence of two characters: 0 and 1. These characters are called binary digits(binary digit), or abbreviated bit(bit). Two concepts can be encoded with one bit: 0 or 1 (yes or no, true or false, etc.). With two bits it is possible to express four different concepts, and with three bits it is possible to encode eight different values.

The smallest unit of information coding in computing after a bit is byte. Its relationship to a bit reflects the following relationship: 1 byte = 8 bits = 1 character.

Typically, one byte encodes one character of text information. Based on this, for text documents, the size in bytes corresponds to the lexical length in characters.

The larger unit of information coding is kilobyte, associated with a byte in the following ratio: 1 KB = 1024 bytes.

Other, larger, information encoding units are symbols obtained by adding the prefixes mega (Mb), giga (GB), tera (TB):

1 MB = 1,048,580 bytes;

1 GB = 10,737,740,000 bytes;

1 TB = 1024 GB.

To encode an integer in binary, take an integer and divide it in half until the quotient is equal to one. The set of remainders from each division, which is written from right to left together with the last quotient, and will be the binary analogue of a decimal number.

In the process of encoding integers from 0 to 255, it is sufficient to use 8 bits of the binary code (8 bits). Using 16 bits allows you to encode integers from 0 to 65535, and using 24 bits more than 16.5 million different values.

In order to encode real numbers, 80-bit encoding is used. In this case, the number is previously converted to a normalized form, for example:

2,1427926 = 0,21427926 ? 101;

500 000 = 0,5 ? 106.

The first part of the encoded number is called mantissa, and the second part is specifications. The main part of 80 bits is reserved for storing the mantissa, and a certain fixed number of bits are allocated for storing the characteristic.

1.4. Encoding text information

The textual information is encoded with a binary code through the designation of each character of the alphabet with a specific integer. With eight binary bits it is possible to encode 256 different characters. This number of characters is enough to express all the characters of the English and Russian alphabets.

In the early years of the development of computer technology, difficulties in coding text information were caused by the lack of the necessary coding standards. At the present time, on the contrary, the existing difficulties are associated with a multitude of simultaneously operating and often conflicting standards.

For English, which is the unofficial international medium of communication, these difficulties have been resolved. The US Institute for Standardization has developed and put into circulation coding system ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange).

Several encoding options have been developed for encoding the Russian alphabet:

1) Windows-1251 - introduced by the company Microsoft; taking into account the wide distribution of operating systems (OS) and other software products of this company in the Russian Federation, it has found wide distribution;

2) KOI-8 (Information Interchange Code, eight-digit) - another popular encoding of the Russian alphabet, widespread in computer networks on the territory of the Russian Federation and in the Russian sector of the Internet;

3) ISO (International Standard Organization - International Institute for Standardization) is an international standard for encoding the characters of the Russian language. In practice, this encoding is rarely used.

The limited set of codes (256) creates difficulties for developers of a unified coding system for text information. As a result, it was proposed to encode characters not with 8-bit binary numbers, but with numbers with a large bit, which caused an expansion of the range of possible code values. The 16-bit character coding system is called universal - UNICODE. Sixteen bits allows for unique codes for 65,536 characters, which is sufficient to accommodate most languages ​​in a single character table.

Despite the simplicity of the proposed approach, the practical transition to this coding system could not take place for a very long time due to the lack of resources of computer technology, since in the UNICODE coding system all text documents automatically become twice as large. In the late 1990s. the technical means reached the required level, a gradual translation of documents and software to the UNICODE coding system began.

1.5. Graphic information encoding

There are several ways to encode graphic information.

When examining a black-and-white graphic image with a magnifying glass, it is noticeable that it contains several tiny dots that form a characteristic pattern (or raster). Linear coordinates and individual properties of each of the image points can be expressed using integers, so the method bitmap coding is based on the use of a binary code for representing graphical data. A well-known standard is the casting of black and white illustrations in the form of a combination of dots with 256 shades of gray, that is, 8-bit binary numbers are required to encode the brightness of any point.

The coding of color graphic images is based on the principle of decomposition of an arbitrary color into basic components, which are three primary colors: red (Red), green (Green) and blue (Blue). In practice, it is assumed that any color that the human eye perceives can be obtained by a mechanical combination of these three colors. This coding system is called RGB (after the first letters of the primary colors). When using 24 binary bits to encode color graphics, this mode is called full color(True Color).

Each of the primary colors is mapped to a color that complements the primary color to white. For any of the primary colors, the additional color will be the color that is formed by the sum of a pair of other primary colors. Accordingly, Cyan, Magenta and Yellow can be distinguished among the complementary colors. The principle of decomposition of an arbitrary color into its constituent components is used not only for primary colors, but also for additional ones, i.e. any color can be represented as a sum of cyan, magenta and yellow components. This color coding method is used in the printing industry, but there is also a fourth ink - Black, so this coding system is denoted by four letters - CMYK. This system uses 32 bits to represent color graphics. This mode is also called full color.

By decreasing the number of bits used to encode the color of each dot, the amount of data is reduced, but the range of encoded colors is noticeably reduced. The encoding of color graphics with 16-bit binary numbers is called the High Color mode. When encoding graphic color information using 8 data bits, only 256 shades can be transmitted. This color coding method is called index.

1.6. Audio coding

At the moment, there is no single standard system for coding sound information, since the techniques and methods of working with sound information began to develop in comparison with the most recent methods of working with other types of information. Therefore, many different companies that work in the field of information coding have created their own corporate standards for audio information. But among these corporate standards, two main areas stand out.

At the heart of FM method(Frequency Modulation) the statement is made that theoretically any complex sound can be represented as decomposition into a sequence of the simplest harmonic signals of different frequencies. Each of these harmonic signals is a regular sinusoid and therefore can be described numerically or encoded. Audio signals form a continuous spectrum, that is, they are analog, therefore, their decomposition into harmonic series and presentation in the form of discrete digital signals is performed using special devices - analog-to-digital converters(ADC). The inverse transformation, which is necessary to reproduce the sound encoded by a numeric code, is done using digital-to-analog converters(DAC). Due to such transformations of audio signals, information losses occur that are associated with the encoding method, therefore, the quality of sound recording using the method FM usually it turns out to be insufficiently satisfactory and corresponds to the sound quality of the simplest electric musical instruments with a color typical for electronic music. At the same time, this method provides a completely compact code, therefore it was widely used in those years when the resources of computer technology were clearly insufficient.

Main idea method of table-wave synthesis(Wave-Table) consists in the fact that pre-prepared tables contain samples of sounds for many different musical instruments. These sound samples are called samples. The numerical codes that are embedded in the sample express such characteristics as the type of instrument, its model number, pitch, duration and intensity of the sound, dynamics of its change, some components of the environment in which the sound is observed, and other parameters characterizing the features of the sound. Since real sounds are used for samples, the quality of the encoded sound information is very high and approaches the sound of real musical instruments, which is more consistent with the current level of development of modern computer technology.

1.7. Modes and methods of information transmission

For the correct exchange of data between the nodes of the local computer network, certain modes of information transfer are used:

1) simplex (unidirectional) transmission;

2) half-duplex transmission, in which the reception and transmission of information by the source and the receiver are carried out alternately;

3) full-duplex transmission, in which parallel simultaneous transmission is performed, that is, each station simultaneously transmits and receives data.

In information systems, duplex or serial data transmission is very often used. There are synchronous and asynchronous methods of serial data transmission.

Synchronous method differs in that the data is transmitted in blocks. Synchronization bits are sent at the beginning of the block to synchronize the operation of the receiver and transmitter. After that, the data, the error detection code and the symbol indicating the end of the transmission are transmitted. This sequence forms the standard data transfer scheme for the synchronous method. In the case of synchronous transmission, data is transmitted both as characters and as a bitstream. The error detection code is most often the Cyclic Redundancy Error Detection Code (CRC), which is determined by the content of the data field. With its help, it is possible to unambiguously determine the reliability of the received information.

The advantages of the method of synchronous data transfer include:

high efficiency;

reliable built-in error detection mechanism;

high data transfer rate.

The main disadvantage of this method is the expensive interface hardware.

Asynchronous method differs in that each character is transmitted in a separate message. The start bits warn the receiver about the beginning of the transmission, after which the character itself is transmitted. The parity bit is used to determine if the transmission is valid. The parity bit is one when the number of ones in a character is odd, and zero when the number of ones is even. The last bit, called the "stop bit", signals the end of the transmission. This sequence forms the standard data transfer scheme for an asynchronous method.

The advantages of the asynchronous transfer method are:

inexpensive (compared to synchronous) interface equipment;

simple proven transmission system.

To the disadvantages of this methods include:

loss of the third part of the bandwidth for the transmission of service bits;

low transmission speed compared to the synchronous method;

the inability to determine the reliability of the information received using the parity bit with multiple errors.

The asynchronous transfer method is used in systems in which data exchange occurs from time to time and does not require a high transfer rate.

1.8. Information Technology

Information is one of the most valuable resources of society, therefore, the process of its processing, as well as material resources (for example, oil, gas, minerals, etc.), can be perceived as a kind of technology. In this case, the following definitions will be valid.

Informational resources - it is a collection of data that are valuable for an enterprise (organization) and act as material resources. These include texts, knowledge, data files, etc.

Information Technology - it is a set of methods, production processes and software and hardware, which are combined into a technological chain. This chain provides collection, storage, processing, output and dissemination of information in order to reduce labor intensity when using information resources, as well as to increase their reliability and efficiency.

According to the definition adopted by UNESCO, information technology is a set of interrelated scientific, technological and engineering disciplines that study methods for the effective organization of the work of people who are engaged in the processing and storage of information, as well as computer technology and methods of organizing and interacting with people and production equipment.

The system of methods and production processes defines the techniques, principles and activities that govern the design and use of software and hardware for data processing. Different methods of data processing and technical means are used depending on the specific applied problems that need to be solved. There are three classes of information technologies that allow working with various kinds of subject areas:

1) global, including models, methods and tools that formalize and allow the use of information resources of society as a whole;

2) basic, intended for a specific area of ​​application;

3) specific, realizing the processing of certain data when solving functional tasks of the user (in particular, tasks of planning, accounting, analysis, etc.).

The main purpose of information technology is the production and processing of information for its analysis and making, on its basis, an appropriate decision, which provides for the implementation of any action.

1.9. Information technology development stages

There are several points of view on the development of information technology with the use of computers. Staging is carried out on the basis of the following division signs.

Allocation of stages on the problems of the process of informatization of society:

1) until the end of the 1960s. - the problem of processing large amounts of information in conditions of limited hardware capabilities;

2) until the end of the 1970s. - software lag behind the level of hardware development;

3) since the beginning of the 1980s. - problems of maximum satisfaction of user needs and creation of an appropriate interface for work in a computer environment;

4) since the early 1990s. - the development of an agreement and the establishment of standards, protocols for computer communications, the organization of access to strategic information, etc.

Allocation of stages according to the advantage brought by computer technology:

1) since the early 1960s. - effective information processing when performing routine work with a focus on the centralized collective use of the resources of computing centers;

2) since the mid-1970s. - the emergence of personal computers (PCs). At the same time, the approach to the creation of information systems has changed - the orientation is shifting towards the individual user to support his decisions. Both centralized and decentralized data processing is applied;

3) since the beginning of the 1990s. - development of telecommunication technology for distributed information processing. Information systems are used to help an organization fight competitors.

Allocation of stages by types of technology tools:

1) until the second half of the 19th century. - "manual" information technology, the tools in which were a pen, inkwell, paper;

2) from the end of the XIX century. - "mechanical" technology, the tools of which were a typewriter, telephone, voice recorder, mail;

3) 1940-1960s. XX century - "electrical" technology, the toolkit of which consisted of large electronic computers (ECM) and the corresponding software, electric typewriters, copiers, portable voice recorders;

4) since the early 1970s. - "electronic" technology, the main tools are large computers and automated control systems (ACS) and information retrieval systems (ISS) created on their basis, which are equipped with a wide range of software systems;

5) since the mid-1980s. - "computer" technology, the main toolkit is a PC with a wide range of standard software products for various purposes.

1.10. The emergence of computers and computer technology

For centuries, people have been trying to create various devices to facilitate computation. In the history of the development of computers and computer technologies, several important events stand out that have become decisive in further evolution.

In the 40s. XVII century B. Pascal invented a mechanical device with which it was possible to add numbers.

At the end of the 18th century. G. Leibniz created a mechanical device for adding and multiplying numbers.

In 1946, the first general purpose computers were invented. American scientists J. von Neumann, G. Goldstein and A. Berne published a work in which they presented the basic principles of creating a universal computer. Since the late 1940s. the first prototypes of such machines began to appear, conventionally called computers of the first generation. These computers were manufactured on vacuum tubes and lagged behind modern calculators in performance.

In the further development of computers, the following stages are distinguished:

the second generation of computers - the invention of transistors;

the third generation of computers - the creation of integrated circuits;

the fourth generation of computers - the emergence of microprocessors (1971).

The first microprocessors were produced by the company Intel, which led to the emergence of a new generation of PCs. Due to the mass interest in such computers in the society, the company IBM(International Business Machines Corporation) has developed a new project for their creation, and the company Microsoft - software for this computer. The project ended in August 1981, and the new PC became known as the IBM PC.

The developed computer model became very popular and quickly ousted all previous models of the company from the market. IBM in the next few years. With the invention of the IBM PC, the standard IBM PC-compatible computers began to be produced, which make up the majority of today's PC market.

In addition to IBM PC-compatible computers, there are other types of computers designed to solve problems of varying complexity in various spheres of human activity.

1.11. Evolution of development of personal computers

The development of microelectronics led to the emergence of microminiature integrated electronic elements that replaced semiconductor diodes and transistors and became the basis for the development and use of PCs. These computers had several advantages: they were compact, easy to use, and relatively cheap.

In 1971 the company Intel created the i4004 microprocessor, and in 1974 - the i8080, which had a huge impact on the development of microprocessor technology. This company remains the market leader in the production of microprocessors for PCs to this day.

In the beginning, PCs were developed on the basis of 8-bit microprocessors. One of the first manufacturers of computers with a 16-bit microprocessor was the company IBM, until the 1980s. specialized in the production of mainframes. In 1981, she first released a PC that used the principle of open architecture, which allowed changing the configuration of the computer and improving its properties.

In the late 1970s. and other large companies from leading countries (USA, Japan, etc.) started developing PCs based on 16-bit microprocessors.

In 1984 appeared TIKMacintosh firms Apple - competitor of the company IBM. In the mid-1980s. computers based on 32-bit microprocessors were released. Currently there are 64-bit systems.

By the type of values ​​of the main parameters and taking into account the application, the following groups of computer technology are distinguished:

supercomputer - a unique super-productive system used to solve the most complex problems, with large calculations;

server - a computer that provides its own resources to other users; there are file servers, print servers, database servers, etc .;

personal computer - a computer designed to work in the office or at home. The user himself can configure, maintain and install software for computers of this type;

professional workstation - a computer with great performance and intended for professional activities in a certain area. Most often it is supplied with additional equipment and specialized software;

laptop - a portable computer with the computing power of a PC. It can function for some time without power from the mains;

a pocket PC (electronic organizer), which does not exceed the size of a calculator, keyboard or keyboardless, similar in functionality to a laptop;

networked PC - a computer for business use with a minimum set of external devices. Operation support and software installation are carried out centrally. It is also used to work in a computer network and to operate in an autonomous mode;

terminal - a device used when working in stand-alone mode. The terminal does not contain a processor for executing commands; it only performs operations for entering and transmitting user commands to another computer and issuing the result to the user.

The market for modern computers and the number of machines produced are determined by market needs.

1.12. The structure of modern computing systems

In the structure of today's PC, such as the IBM PC, there are several main components:

a system unit that organizes work, processes information, makes calculations, and provides communication between a person and a computer. The PC system unit includes a motherboard, speaker, fan, power supply, two floppy drives;

system (motherboard) board, which is several dozen integrated circuits for various purposes. The integrated circuit is based on a microprocessor, which is designed to perform computations from a program stored in a memory device and general control of a PC. The speed of the PC depends on the speed of the processor;

PC memory, which is divided into internal and external: a) internal (main) memory is a memory device associated with the processor and designed to store used programs and data that are involved in calculations. Internal memory is subdivided into operational (random access memory - RAM) and read-only memory (read-only memory - ROM). Random access memory is intended for receiving, storing and issuing information, and permanent memory is intended for storing and issuing information; b) external memory (external storage device - OVC) is used to accommodate large amounts of information and exchange it with random access memory. By design, OVCs are separated from the central devices of the PC;

an audio card (soundcard) used for playing and recording sound;

video card (video card) that provides playback and recording of a video signal.

External devices for entering information into a PC include:

a) keyboard - a set of sensors that perceive the pressure on the keys and close some electrical circuit;

b) a mouse is a manipulator that simplifies work with most computers. Distinguish between mechanical, optical-mechanical and optical mice, as well as wired and wireless;

c) scanner - a device that allows you to enter text, drawings, photographs, etc. into a computer graphically.

External devices for outputting information are:

a) a monitor used to display various types of information on the screen. Monitor screen size is measured in inches as the distance between the bottom left and top right corners of the screen;

b) a printer used to print text and graphics prepared on a computer. There are dot matrix, inkjet and laser printers.

External input devices are used to make information possessed by the user available to the computer. The main purpose of an external output device is to present the available information in a form accessible to the user.

For the complete formalization of economic information, a simple classification is not enough, therefore, the following procedure is carried out - coding. Coding – it is the process of assigning symbols to objects and classification groups according to the corresponding coding system. Coding system – it is a set of rules for designating objects and groupings using codes. The code - it is a conventional designation of objects or groupings in the form of a sign or a group of signs in accordance with the accepted system. The code is based on a certain alphabet(some set of signs). The number of characters in this set is called basis code. The following types of alphabets are distinguished: numeric, alphabetic and mixed .

The code is characterized by the following parameters:

Length ( L);

Coding base ( A);

· The structure of the code, which is understood as the distribution of signs according to characteristics and objects of classification;

The degree of information content ( I), calculated as the quotient of dividing the total number of features ( R) by the length of the code ( L):

I = R / L;

Redundancy ratio ( K huts), which is defined as the ratio of the maximum number of objects ( Q max) to the actual number of objects ( Q fact):

All coding systems can be grouped into two subsets (Fig. 2.13): registration and classification coding systems.

Feature registration coding systems is their independence from the applied classification systems. Registration codes are used to identify objects and transmit information about objects over a distance, so they must meet the following requirements: minimum code length, unambiguous correspondence of the name of the object and its code for a long period of time, and code security from interference and errors.

Registration codes consist of two parts: information and control, designed to protect the transmitted information from errors. The control part can be calculated according to various algorithms, in particular, the most used are the following formulas for their calculation:

;

where is the modulus (a prime number divisible by one and by itself); – information bits, i- number of the category; - the weight of the information category.

Registration systems include serial and serial coding systems.

Ordinal system – it is the simplest coding system in its construction, the essence of using which is the sequential assignment of each object of the coded set Mo to its order number, i.e. in the assignment of natural numbers in the order of the objects. This order can be random or determined after preliminary grouping of objects, for example, alphabetically. As a rule, the ordinal system is used to encode small-valued, well-established and simple sets of objects that do not require preliminary classification.

Serial (serial-serial) the coding system differs from the ordinal one in that the nomenclature of encoded objects ( M) must first be divided into groupings according to one attribute, and each grouping must be assigned a series of code designations, within which each element is assigned its own code in order.

The series of designations for each grouping is determined in such a way that after assigning codes to the elements of this group, there would still be free numbers in it in case new objects appear.

Classification codes are used to reflect the classification relationships of objects and groupings and are mainly used for complex logical processing of economic information on a computer.This implies the following requirements: unambiguous display of the classification relationships of objects and their groupings and ensuring maximum ease of programming. The group of classification coding systems can be divided into two subgroups depending on which classification system is used to order objects.

Serial systems encodings are characterized by the fact that they are based on a preliminary classification according to a hierarchical classification system, as a result of which the codes of the subordinate groupings are formed by adding codes to the codes of the higher groupings.

Parallel systems encodings are characterized by the fact that they are built on the basis of the use of a facet classification system and the codes for groupings by facets are generated independently of each other.

Serial and parallel coding systems are built on the basis of a bit or combined coding system.

Discharge system used to encode objects defined by several subordinate features used to solve economic problems. The objects to be encoded are systematized according to the classification characteristics at each stage of the classification, each characteristic is assigned a certain number of digits, within which the encoding of the groupings begins with one. With a bit coding system, the so-called "dependent" coding is used. This means that the classification groupings according to the lowest characteristics are coded depending on the code of the grouping formed according to the highest characteristic. The stock of free positions is determined by the structure of the code.

The object code built according to this system consists of as many positions (or the number of groups of digits) as the features for objects were taken into account, therefore the bit coding system is sometimes called positioning system . The specific value of a feature characterizing an object is determined by the position and value of a certain number in the code structure. The length of the code depends on the number of classification stages, on the number of classification groupings at each stage and on the coding base.

Combined system coding, possessing all the advantages of a bit code, is used to encode large nomenclatures (lists) of objects, which are characterized by many subordinate or independent features. This system is based on a combination of principles for constructing such coding systems as bit, serial, ordinal and repetition code.

Repetition code (mnemonic code) – These are alphabetic or alphanumeric codes, which are characterized by the fact that part of the symbolic designations of objects is transferred into the code structure in order to increase the mnemonicity of the code or to reduce its length.

The choice of a specific coding system depends on the volume of the encoded nomenclature, its stability, on the tasks facing the system, and on the performance indicators of information processing when using any system.

Computer science, cybernetics and programming

Information coding system Information coding is used to unify the data presentation forms that belong to different types in order to automate the work with information. For example, natural human languages ​​can be viewed as coding systems for concepts for expressing thoughts through speech, moreover, and alphabets are systems for coding language components using graphic symbols. The basis of this coding system is the representation of data through a sequence of two characters: 0 and 1. The smallest ...

18. Information coding system

Information coding is used to unify the presentation of data of different types in order to automate the work with information.

Coding - it is an expression of data of one type through data of another type. For example, natural human languages ​​can be viewed as systems for coding concepts for expressing thoughts through speech, in addition, alphabets are systems for coding language components using graphic symbols.

In computing it is usedbinary encoding.The basis of this coding system is the representation of data through a sequence of two characters: 0 and 1. These characters are calledbinary digits(binary digit), or abbreviated bit (bit). Two concepts can be encoded with one bit: 0 or 1 (yes or no, true or false, etc.). With two bits it is possible to express four different concepts, and with three bits it is possible to encode eight different values.

The smallest unit of information coding in computing after a bit is byte. Its relationship to a bit reflects the following relationship: 1 byte = 8 bits = 1 character.

Typically, one byte encodes one character of text information. Based on this, for text documents, the size in bytes corresponds to the lexical length in characters.

The larger unit of information coding is kilobyte, associated with a byte in the following ratio: 1 KB = 1024 bytes.

Other, larger, information encoding units are symbols obtained by adding the prefixes mega (Mb), giga (GB), tera (TB):

1 MB = 1,048,580 bytes;

1 GB = 10,737,740,000 bytes;

1 TB = 1024 GB.

To encode an integer in binary, take an integer and divide it in half until the quotient is equal to one. The set of remainders from each division, which is written from right to left together with the last quotient, and will be the binary analogue of a decimal number.

In the process of encoding integers from 0 to 255, it is sufficient to use 8 bits of the binary code (8 bits). Using 16 bits allows you to encode integers from 0 to 65535, and using 24 bits more than 16.5 million different values.

In order to encode real numbers, 80-bit encoding is used. In this case, the number is previously converted to a normalized form, for example:

2,1427926 = 0,21427926 ? 101;

500 000 = 0,5 ? 106.

The first part of the encoded number is called mantissa, and the second part - characteristics. The main part of 80 bits is reserved for storing the mantissa, and a certain fixed number of bits are allocated for storing the characteristic.

Encoding text information

The textual information is encoded with a binary code through the designation of each character of the alphabet with a specific integer. With eight binary bits it is possible to encode 256 different characters. This number of characters is enough to express all the characters of the English and Russian alphabets.

In the early years of the development of computer technology, difficulties in coding text information were caused by the lack of the necessary coding standards. At the present time, on the contrary, the existing difficulties are associated with a multitude of simultaneously operating and often conflicting standards.

For English, which is the unofficial international medium of communication, these difficulties have been resolved. The US Institute for Standardization has developed and put into circulationcoding system ASCII (AmericanStandard Code for Information Interchange).

Several encoding options have been developed for encoding the Russian alphabet:

1) Windows-1251 - introduced by the company Microsoft; taking into account the wide distribution of operating systems (OS) and other software products of this company in the Russian Federation, it has found wide distribution;

2) KOI-8 (Information Interchange Code, eight-digit) - another popular encoding of the Russian alphabet, widespread in computer networks on the territory of the Russian Federation and in the Russian sector of the Internet;

3) ISO (International Standard Organization - International Institute for Standardization) is an international standard for encoding the characters of the Russian language. In practice, this encoding is rarely used.

The limited set of codes (256) creates difficulties for developers of a unified coding system for text information. As a result, it was proposed to encode characters not with 8-bit binary numbers, but with numbers with a large bit, which caused an expansion of the range of possible code values. The 16-bit character coding system is called universal - UNICODE. Sixteen bits allows for unique codes for 65,536 characters, which is sufficient to accommodate most languages ​​in a single character table.

Despite the simplicity of the proposed approach, the practical transition to this coding system could not take place for a very long time due to the lack of resources of computer technology, since in the UNICODE coding system all text documents automatically become twice as large. In the late 1990s. the technical means reached the required level, a gradual translation of documents and software to the UNICODE coding system began.

Graphic information encoding

There are several ways to encode graphic information.

When examining a black-and-white graphic image with a magnifying glass, it is noticeable that it contains several tiny dots that form a characteristic pattern (or raster). Linear coordinates and individual properties of each of the image points can be expressed using integers, so the methodbitmap codingis based on the use of a binary code for representing graphical data. A well-known standard is the casting of black and white illustrations in the form of a combination of dots with 256 shades of gray, that is, 8-bit binary numbers are required to encode the brightness of any point.

The coding of color graphic images is based on the principle of decomposition of an arbitrary color into basic components, which are three primary colors: red (Red), green (Green) and blue (Blue). In practice, it is assumed that any color that the human eye perceives can be obtained by a mechanical combination of these three colors. This coding system is called RGB (after the first letters of the primary colors). When using 24 binary bits to encode color graphics, this mode is called full color (True Color).

Each of the primary colors is mapped to a color that complements the primary color to white. For any of the primary colors, the additional color will be the color that is formed by the sum of a pair of other primary colors. Accordingly, Cyan, Magenta and Yellow can be distinguished among the complementary colors. The principle of decomposition of an arbitrary color into its constituent components is used not only for primary colors, but also for additional ones, i.e. any color can be represented as a sum of cyan, magenta and yellow components. This color coding method is used in the printing industry, but there is also a fourth ink - Black, so this coding system is denoted by four letters - CMYK. This system uses 32 bits to represent color graphics. This mode is also called full color.

By decreasing the number of bits used to encode the color of each dot, the amount of data is reduced, but the range of encoded colors is noticeably reduced. The encoding of color graphics with 16-bit binary numbers is called the High Color mode. When encoding graphic color information using 8 data bits, only 256 shades can be transmitted. This color coding method is called index.

Audio coding

At the moment, there is no single standard system for coding sound information, since the techniques and methods of working with sound information began to develop in comparison with the most recent methods of working with other types of information. Therefore, many different companies that work in the field of information coding have created their own corporate standards for audio information. But among these corporate standards, two main areas stand out.

At the heart of the FM method (Frequency Modulation) the statement is made that theoretically any complex sound can be represented as decomposition into a sequence of the simplest harmonic signals of different frequencies. Each of these harmonic signals is a regular sinusoid and therefore can be described numerically or encoded. Audio signals form a continuous spectrum, that is, they are analog, therefore, their decomposition into harmonic series and presentation in the form of discrete digital signals is performed using special devices -analog-to-digital converters(ADC). The inverse transformation, which is necessary to reproduce the sound encoded by a numeric code, is done usingdigital-to-analog converters(DAC). Due to such transformations of audio signals, information losses occur that are associated with the encoding method, therefore, the quality of sound recording using the method FM usually it turns out to be insufficiently satisfactory and corresponds to the sound quality of the simplest electric musical instruments with a color typical for electronic music. At the same time, this method provides a completely compact code, therefore it was widely used in those years when the resources of computer technology were clearly insufficient.

Main idea method of table-wave synthesis(Wave-Table) consists in the fact that pre-prepared tables contain samples of sounds for many different musical instruments. These sound samples are called samples. The numerical codes that are embedded in the sample express such characteristics as the type of instrument, its model number, pitch, duration and intensity of the sound, dynamics of its change, some components of the environment in which the sound is observed, and other parameters characterizing the features of the sound. Since real sounds are used for samples, the quality of the encoded sound information is very high and approaches the sound of real musical instruments, which is more consistent with the current level of development of modern computer technology.

And also other works that may interest you
58115.		The value of health to humans	41 KB
	Purpose: to acquaint with the objectives and content of the course Fundamentals of Health; to form an idea of ​​the importance of health for teaching work to communicate with relatives; to develop memory motivation for the basics of maintaining and promoting health; to cultivate a love of life for people.
58116.		Vіyskovі calls and signs of distribution. Heads and children, senior and young people, their rights and obligations	182.5 KB
	Meta: Vivchity is an understanding of the essence and meaning of all discipline; Name the statues of the most powerful forces of Ukraine, the main ones. The statutes of the Ukrainian Defense Forces are based on the establishment of the laws of the military service on the basis of how to pass the everyday life of the victor ...
58118.		Functions of finance as an economic category	15.22 KB
	It is through this function that the public purpose of finance is implemented - providing each business entity and the state with the necessary resources, using. in the form of targeted funds.
58119.		Finance as an economic category in the system of socio-economic categories	15.17 KB
	Each science operates with a certain range of concepts, has special, specific categories, which are a concentrated expression of the general, most essential features, qualities, patterns and interrelationships of objects of that sphere
58120.		Creation of web pages	32 KB
	It requires patience and knowledge of the basics of "programming" in html, which, in fact, is not a programming language. So. For work, the Notepad program will be enough for us. Moreover, it will be enough to use only the FILE menu.
58121.		SUSPILO-HISTORIC MOVE TO THE ROSVITKU OF UKRAINIAN LITERATURE OF THE XX CENTURY, BASIC STYLES IN DIRECTLY	120.5 KB
	The chronological interactions start not only with the relocation of the revolution of 1905-1917, but with the entrance from the life of I. Frank (1916) and M. Kotsyubinsky Lesi Ukrayinka (died in 1913). Formula pislya 1905 p. Kiev yak literary capital of Ukraine, expansion of Ukrainian literary periodicals
58122.		INTRODUCTION WORLD IN XVI - XVIII CENTURIES	46 KB
	In a narrower sense, history is a science that studies all kinds of sources about the past in order to establish the sequence of events, the historical process, the objectivity of the described facts and draw conclusions about the causes of events.
58123.		Public catering accounting tasks	34 KB
	Control over financial indicators (the amount of profit, sources of funds and the procedure for spending them, working capital, deductions from profits, etc.) over the correctness of settlements with suppliers and buyers, for the timely receipt of payments to the budget, for the correct use of bank loans. ..