Environmental monitoring program. Providing environmental monitoring

Environmental monitoring

Environmental monitoring(environmental monitoring) is an integrated system for observing the state of the environment, assessing and forecasting changes in the state of the environment under the influence of natural and anthropogenic factors.

Typically, the territory already has a number of observing networks belonging to various services, and which are departmental fragmented, not coordinated in chronological, parametric and other aspects. Therefore, the task of preparing estimates, forecasts, criteria for alternatives for choosing managerial decisions on the basis of departmental data available in the region becomes, in general case, undefined. In this regard, the central problems of organizing environmental monitoring are ecological and economic zoning and the choice of "informative indicators" of the ecological state of territories with verification of their systemic sufficiency.

Monitoring types

In general, the process of environmental monitoring can be represented by the following diagram: the environment (or specific object environment) -> measurement of parameters -> collection and transmission of information -> processing and presentation of data, forecast. Measurement of parameters, collection and transmission of information, processing and presentation of data are carried out by the monitoring system. The environmental monitoring system is intended to serve the environmental quality management system (hereinafter referred to as "management system" for short). Information about the state of the environment obtained in the monitoring system is used by the management system to eliminate the negative environmental situation or reduce the adverse effects of changes in the state of the environment, as well as to develop forecasts of socio-economic development, develop programs in the field of environmental development and environmental protection.

In the management system, three subsystems can also be distinguished: decision making (specially authorized state body), decision implementation management (for example, enterprise administration), decision implementation using various technical or other means.

Monitoring systems or its types differ according to the objects of observation. Since the components of the environment are air, water, mineral and energy resources, biological resources, soils, etc., the corresponding monitoring subsystems are distinguished. However, the monitoring subsystems do not have unified system indicators, uniform approaches for regionalization of territories, tracking frequency, etc., which makes it impossible to take adequate measures in managing the development and ecological state of territories. Therefore, when making decisions, it is important to focus not only on the data of "private monitoring systems" (hydrometeorological services, resource monitoring, socio-hygienic, biota, etc.), but to create on their basis integrated environmental monitoring systems.

Monitoring levels

Monitoring is a multilevel system. In the chorological aspect, systems (or subsystems) of the detailed, local, regional, national and global levels are usually distinguished.

The lowest hierarchical level is the level detailed monitoring implemented within small territories (plots), etc.

When combining detailed monitoring systems into a larger network (for example, within a district, etc.), a local level monitoring system is formed. Local monitoring is intended to provide an assessment of system changes over a larger area: the territory of the city, district.

Local systems can be combined into larger - systems regional monitoring covering the territories of regions within a province or region, or within several of them. Similar systems regional monitoring, integrating the data of observation networks, differing in approaches, parameters, tracking territories and frequency, allow to adequately form comprehensive assessments of the state of territories and make forecasts of their development.

Regional monitoring systems can be combined within one state into a single national (or state) monitoring network, thus forming national level) monitoring systems. An example of such a system was the "Unified State System of Environmental Monitoring Russian Federation"(EGSEM) and its territorial subsystems, successfully created in the 90s of the twentieth century to adequately solve the problems of territorial management. However, following the Ministry of Ecology in 2002, the EGSEM was also abolished and at present in Russia there are only departmental-scattered observation networks , which does not allow to adequately solve the strategic tasks of territorial management, taking into account the ecological imperative.

Within the framework of the UN environmental program, the task of uniting national systems monitoring in a single state network- "Global Environment Monitoring System" (GEMS). It is supreme global level organization of an environmental monitoring system. Its purpose is to monitor changes in the environment on Earth and its resources in general, on a global scale. Global monitoring is a system for tracking the state and forecasting possible changes in global processes and phenomena, including anthropogenic impacts on the Earth's biosphere as a whole. While the creation of such a system in in full, operating under the auspices of the UN, is a challenge for the future, since many states do not yet have their own national systems.

The global system for monitoring the environment and resources is designed to solve common human environmental problems throughout the entire Earth, such as global warming, the problem of preserving the ozone layer, forecasting earthquakes, forest conservation, global desertification and soil erosion, floods, food and energy resources, etc. An example of such a system is the global Earth seismic monitoring network operating under the International Earthquake Control Program (http://www.usgu.gov/), etc.

Environmental monitoring program

Scientifically based environmental monitoring is carried out in accordance with the Program. The program should include the general goals of the organization, specific strategies for its implementation and implementation mechanisms.

The key elements of Environmental Monitoring Programs are:

• a list of objects under control with their strict territorial reference (chorological monitoring organization);

• list of control indicators and admissible areas their changes (parametric organization of monitoring);

• time scales - frequency of sampling, frequency and time of data submission (chronological organization of monitoring).

In addition, the application in the Monitoring Program should contain diagrams, maps, tables indicating the location, date and method of sampling and data presentation.

Ground-based remote observation systems

At present, monitoring programs, in addition to traditional "manual" sampling, emphasize data collection using electronic measuring devices for remote monitoring in real time.

The use of electronic measuring devices for remote monitoring is carried out using connections to the base station either through a telemetry network, or through land lines, cellular telephone networks or other telemetry systems.

The advantage of remote monitoring is that multiple channels of data can be used in a single base station for storage and analysis. This dramatically increases the efficiency of monitoring when the threshold levels of the monitored indicators are reached, for example, at selected sites control. This approach allows taking immediate action based on the monitoring data if the threshold level is exceeded.

The use of remote monitoring systems requires installation special equipment(monitoring sensors), which are usually disguised to reduce vandalism and theft when monitoring is carried out in easily accessible locations.

Remote sensing systems

Monitoring programs make extensive use of remote sensing of the environment using aircraft or satellites equipped with multichannel sensors.

There are two types remote sensing.

1. Passive detection of terrestrial radiation emitted or reflected from an object or in the vicinity of observation. The most common source of radiation is reflected sunlight, the intensity of which is measured by passive sensors. Sensors for remote sensing of the environment are tuned to specific wavelengths - from far infrared to far ultraviolet, including the frequency of visible light. The huge amounts of data that are collected by remote sensing of the environment require powerful computational support. This makes it possible to analyze subtle differences in the radiation characteristics of the environment in remote sensing data, to successfully exclude noise and “false color images”. With several spectral channels, it is possible to enhance contrasts that are invisible to the human eye. In particular, when monitoring biological resources, one can distinguish between subtle differences in changes in the concentration of chlorophyll in plants, revealing areas with different nutritional regimes.
2. In active remote sensing, an energy stream is emitted from a satellite or aircraft and a passive sensor is used to detect and measure the radiation reflected or scattered by the target. LIDAR is often used to obtain information about the topographic characteristics of the study area, which is especially effective when the area is large and manual survey will be expensive.

Remote sensing allows you to collect data on hazardous or hard-to-reach areas. Remote sensing applications include forest monitoring, the impact of climate change on Arctic and Antarctic glaciers, and coastal and ocean depth research.

Data from orbital platforms obtained from different parts the electromagnetic spectrum, combined with ground-based data, provides information for monitoring trends in the manifestation of long-term and short-term phenomena, natural and anthropogenic. Other applications include natural resource management, land use planning, and different areas earth sciences.

Interpretation and presentation of data

The interpretation of environmental monitoring data, even from a well-designed program, is often ambiguous. There are often analyzes or “biased results” of monitoring, or a sufficiently controversial use of statistics to demonstrate the correctness of a particular point of view. This is clearly seen, for example, in the interpretation of global warming, where proponents argue that CO 2 levels have increased by 25% over the past hundred years, while opponents argue that CO 2 levels have only increased by one percent.

In new science-based environmental monitoring programs, a number of quality indicators have been developed to integrate significant amounts of processed data, classify them and interpret the meaning of integral assessments. For example, the UK uses the GQA system. These general quality ratings classify rivers into six groups based on chemical criteria and biological criteria.

To make decisions, it is more convenient to use the assessment in the GQA system than a set of particular indicators.

Literature

1. Izrael Yu.A. Ecology and control of the state of the natural environment. - L .: Gidrometeoizdat, 1979, - 376 p.

2. Izrael Yu.A. Global Observing System. Forecast and assessment of the environment. Monitoring basics. - Meteorology and Hydrology. 1974, No. 7. - P.3-8.

Appointment;

Information, software, cartographic monitoring support and their structure;

OS monitoring support subsystems.

Environmental information is the basis for a comprehensive assessment of technical innovations, nature-transforming human actions consists of three main blocks:

Informational;

Software;

Cartographic.

Work on the creation of a comprehensive monitoring of anthropogenic changes in the environment should represent a control system based on comprehensive observation, analysis of a specific state and on predicting trends in changes in the most important environmental factors. The latter include physical, chemical and biological parameters of the natural environment. They are recorded according to some spatio-temporal structure, determined depending on the intensity of pollutants, the patterns of their distribution, and proximity to settlements. The structure of environmental monitoring is shown in Fig. 6.1.

General scheme software the monitoring system contains a monitor (central dispatcher) that controls the operation of individual subsystems. Among them are a subsystem for collecting information, its storage and primary processing, a subsystem for displaying information, a subsystem for calculating concentration, making forecasts, etc. The monitor performs following functions: organization of interaction between individual subsystems, organization of time service, test control of the ground measurement system and other service functions.

Information collection subsystem liaises between computing center and equipment of stationary posts and mobile laboratories, primary sorting and operational storage of collected data, test control of blocks of the ground measurement network.

Information transmission subsystem transfers the collected and processed information to its users.

Storage subsystem and primary processing of information consists of different bases data. The subsystem of calculations and forecasts contains a base of pollution transfer models taking into account meteorological factors of the relief, etc., as well as a base of models for making forecasts.

Display subsystem is intended for documenting the results of pollution and emission control, as well as for calculations and forecasts. The results can be displayed in cartographic form or in the form of tables, text references, etc. A combination of various forms of displaying information is also possible.

Database is a set of stored operational data used by application systems of a certain enterprise. In accordance with the general structure of the ground measurement network, the following main databases have been created: by air; emissions and waste; water bodies; cartography.

The air quality data collection system receives information on the qualitative and quantitative state of meteorological and physical quantities obtained from automatic instruments for measuring emissions, background parameters, automatic meteorological instruments, mobile laboratories and in the study of vehicle traffic. The information is entered into memory and processed to further obtain parameters that will be used directly in planning environmental protection measures.

The entire body of data on water bodies is divided into two parts: MACRO and MICRO. In MACRO, the consumer receives data for the requested region either within economic boundaries or within an administrative division. The MICRO contains information on subject area and organizations (of varying detail).

Fig 6.1.

Cartographic monitoring support. The specific monitoring tasks impose special requirements on the cartographic method in terms of its efficiency in the analysis and processing of the information received. Within the framework of these requirements, the cartographic method is defined as a multipurpose system for monitoring the state of the environment and the factors affecting it using a set of baseline, assessment and operational maps.

Cartographic support provides the following blocks:

Initial (basic) information, including cartographic data on natural conditions, economic use of the territory, as well as on the state of the phenomenon, process or environmental parameter being monitored.

evaluative and forecast information containing assessment maps of the observed phenomenon, forecasts of its development in time and space, and, in addition, advisory maps for decision-making.

operational forecast and control, where operational data of the observed phenomenon are created. This block is directly related to the incoming data of the Hydrometeorological Service, observations at monitoring stations. the main objective block - operational presentation current information in cartographic form.

cartographic data assesses the results of changes in the environment, their impact on economic activity and human health, outlines long-term measures for the rational use of favorable trends or reduction of negative factors.

The first two blocks form the fund of the initial cartographic information. They provide monitoring with the necessary map data. Databases of cartographic information have great importance to implement the monitoring system.

For the formation and functioning of databases and cartographic display of data, automatic cartographic systems are used. Their distinctive feature is that the composition technical means this system should include at least a computer, a graphic video screen, a digitizer and a plotter. The general scheme of work is as follows: at the first stage, digitizers are used to digitize information and enter it into a database, at the second stage, a video screen for interactive processing of information, at the third stage, maps are built on a plotter, color inkjet printing device or graphic video screen.

The block of estimated and forecast information includes maps of the distribution of temperatures, humidity, wind direction and speed along meteorological stations and posts.

Based on this information, a series of hydrological, meteorological maps and maps of the distribution of industrial waste, maps of the distribution of temperatures and air pollution by various indicators throughout the territory, maps of indicators of water bodies within the city are obtained. Thus, you can create various blocks and series of maps required for the analysis of the environmental situation.

Environmental informatization is given such great importance - it is on its basis that one can decide global problems, and above all environmental. Without the creation of databases and knowledge of environmental information, without the full development of environmental transparency as a free movement of the mentioned information, it will be impossible to go over to planetary management of eco-development. Without it, the sustainable development model is nothing more than a utopia, and the very transition to paperless (electronic, and eventually photonic) informatics will help preserve the biosphere. Already during the creation of the concept of informatization of society, it was established that in the field of ecology and health care, losses and losses due to the lack of modern means information support many times exceed all admissible costs of informatization.

Ecological zoning and health status of the population of the Republic of Uzbekistan.

To assess the environmental situation, the institutes (NIPTI “Atmosphere” and the NPHC “Ecology of Water Management”) of the State Committee for Nature Protection developed a methodology and carried out an ecological zoning of the territory of the Republic of Uzbekistan. The regionalization is based on the administrative-territorial division of the republic; for the minimum zoned territorial unit (tax), an administrative district, a city of republican or regional subordination is taken. The ecological situation of each taxon is assessed according to 18 ecological indicators (criteria), which, along with the traditional division of territories according to the degree of ecological stress (permissible, critical, emergency, ecological disaster), are scored and, taking into account the weighted average score, are subdivided into two categories dangerous and especially dangerous.

Rice. 6.2

The zoning of the territory according to the degree of environmental stress (in the context of regions) is carried out as follows: 400 and more

points - extremely tense; 250 ... 400 - very tense, 150..250 - medium-tense, 120 ... 150 - slightly tense and less than 120 points - not tense.

The most unfavorable environmentally is the territory of the Republic of Karakalpakstan, where an extremely tense ecological situation has developed and continues to worsen.

Strongly tense ecological situation - in Khorezm, Fergana and Navoi regions.

The ecological situation in Samarkand and Bukhara regions is characterized as medium-stress; Surkhandarya, Tashkent, Syrdarya and Andijan regions - as weakly tense; Namangan, Jizzakh, Kashkadarya regions and the city of Tashkent relaxed).

It should be noted that the given ranking of the territory according to the degree of environmental stress does not exclude the presence of extremely unfavorable "hot spots" in relatively "prosperous" areas. So, for example, in the Surkhandarya region, the Termez and Muzrabad regions fall into the zone of an ecological emergency, in the Bukhara region - the city of Gijduvan, in the Tashkent region - the city of Yangiyul and others.

The results of zoning will become the basis for the development of legislation aimed at social protection of the population living in areas of ecological disaster, and can be used in the development of National Action Plans for environmental protection and environmental support for sustainable development of the Republic of Uzbekistan.

The impact of the state of the environment on the health of the population.

By the beginning of 1997, the population permanently residing in the territory of the republic amounted to 23.5 million people. Density - 52.7 people / km 2. A significant part of the population (62%) lives in rural areas (Table 6.2).

Long-term analysis has shown that the average life expectancy in the republic is quite low and amounts to 69.3 years (66.1 for men and 72.4 for women) *. The birth rate is quite high in the republic. In 1996, it was 27.3 newborns per 1000 population. The number of people under 15 years old reaches 41%. At the same time, the number of elderly people is significantly lower than in many other countries of the world.

The extraordinary structure and high natural growth of the population increases the demands on the health service system and sets priorities.

Table 6.2. Population of the Republic of Uzbekistan for the period 1992-1996

Despite the fact that the infant mortality rate per 1000 births in 1996 compared with 1985 decreased from 45.3 to 24.2, this most important demographic indicator is still higher than in many other republics of the CIS, and much higher than in developed countries *. In addition, in the last 10-15 years, there has been a steady increase in the overall morbidity rate in terms of primary referral among the adult and child population. The overall incidence rate (without infectious diseases) in adults and adolescents increased from 2925.3 in 1985 to 3743.6 in 1996.

In 1996, persons with diseases of the respiratory system accounted for 22.9%, of the digestive system - 12.9%. The predominance of these diseases in the general structure gives grounds to draw a conclusion about their connection with an unfavorable ecological situation (Tables 6.3, 6.4).

The state of the environment in the Aral Sea region, in the Saryassi district of the Surkhandarya region, as well as in areas with intensive use of pesticides, has a particularly adverse effect on the health of the population.In the Khorezm region, over 370 thousand people (37% of the total surveyed), in the Republic of Karakalpakstan - over 550 thousand people (45% of the surveyed). The predisposition to diseases in the Khorezm region is 72.3% of the population, in the Republic of Karakalpakstan - 70%.

The incidence of tuberculosis, esophageal cancer, diseases of the blood, hematopoietic system, and digestive organs in the Aral Sea region is several times higher than the national average.

* In Japan - in men she equal to 75.8 years, women - 81.9.

Table 6.3 Morbidity structure of the population of the republic with the first diagnosis,%

Table 6.4 Dynamics of mortality in the republic, taking into account the causes of mortality (per 100,000 population)

Scientifically based environmental monitoring is carried out in accordance with the Program. The program should include the general goals of the organization, specific strategies for its implementation and implementation mechanisms.

The key elements of Environmental Monitoring Programs are:

• · A list of objects under control with their strict territorial reference (chorological organization of monitoring);
• · A list of control indicators and admissible areas of their change (parametric organization of monitoring);
• · Time scales - frequency of sampling, frequency and time of data submission (chronological organization of monitoring).

In addition, the application in the Monitoring Program should contain diagrams, maps, tables indicating the location, date and method of sampling and data presentation.

Ground-based remote observation systems

Monitoring programs make extensive use of remote sensing of the environment using aircraft or satellites equipped with multichannel sensors.

There are two types of remote sensing.

• 1. Passive detection of terrestrial radiation emitted or reflected from an object or in the vicinity of observation. The most common source of radiation is reflected sunlight, the intensity of which is measured by passive sensors. Sensors for remote sensing of the environment are tuned to specific wavelengths - from far infrared to far ultraviolet, including the frequency of visible light. The huge amounts of data that are collected by remote sensing of the environment require powerful computational support. This makes it possible to analyze subtle differences in the radiation characteristics of the environment in remote sensing data, to successfully exclude noise and “false color images”. With several spectral channels, it is possible to enhance contrasts that are invisible to the human eye. In particular, when monitoring biological resources, one can distinguish between subtle differences in changes in the concentration of chlorophyll in plants, revealing areas with different nutritional regimes.
• 2. With active remote sensing, an energy flow is emitted from a satellite or aircraft and a passive sensor is used to detect and measure radiation reflected or scattered by the object of study. LIDAR is often used to obtain information about the topographic characteristics of the study area, which is especially effective when the area is large and manual survey will be expensive.

Remote sensing allows you to collect data on hazardous or hard-to-reach areas. Remote sensing applications include forest monitoring, the impact of climate change on Arctic and Antarctic glaciers, and coastal and ocean depth research.

Data from orbiting platforms, obtained from different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, combined with ground-based data, provide information for monitoring trends in the manifestation of long-term and short-term phenomena, natural and anthropogenic. Other applications include natural resource management, land use planning, and various fields of earth sciences.

Interpretation and presentation of data

The interpretation of environmental monitoring data, even from a well-designed program, is often ambiguous. There are often analyzes or “biased results” of monitoring, or a sufficiently controversial use of statistics to demonstrate the correctness of a particular point of view. This is clearly seen, for example, in the interpretation of global warming, where proponents argue that CO 2 levels have increased by 25% over the past hundred years, while opponents argue that CO 2 levels have only increased by one percent.

In new science-based environmental monitoring programs, a number of quality indicators have been developed to integrate significant amounts of processed data, classify them and interpret the meaning of integral assessments. For example, the UK uses the GQA system. These general quality ratings classify rivers into six groups based on chemical criteria and biological criteria.

Consider a systematic approach to the analysis of observational data in different programs monitoring and identify what features are introduced by the factor of the geographical scale of observations in the implementation of a particular program.

Source monitoring

The composition of gas emissions at the source is fully determined in qualitative and quantitative terms by technology and its perfection. The concentration levels of pollutants in the source exceed the MPC for SS by tens of thousands of times. The analytical task is not difficult, since the composition is known and sufficiently stable, and the concentration levels are high and do not require preliminary concentration of the sample. All difficulties are associated with taking a representative sample from the source, since gas streams are often heterogeneous, heated to high temperature and are heterogeneous in time and diameter of the gas duct. Non-contact methods of analysis that do not require sampling are promising here. This level of monitoring is not covered in this manual.

Impact monitoring

The composition and concentration levels are largely (but not completely) determined by the production technologies that create the pollution. In this case, physicochemical processes in the environment and meteorological conditions begin to play an essential role in creating the observed levels of pollutant concentrations. The latter sometimes exceed the SS MPC by tens of times. A close relationship is observed between the location of sources, their characteristics, wind direction and speed, and pollutant concentration fields. Observations are carried out at stationary, mobile and under-flare posts (see section 4.4).

Regional monitoring

A significant distance from the enterprises leads to the fact that the concentration levels of pollutants are closer to the background, usually within the MPC SS or even lower. The analytical problem is complicated not only by the need for preliminary concentration of impurities, but also by the strong variability of their values ​​and qualitative composition. In this case, monitoring refers to aeroanalytical problems in which the role of air currents is exceptionally great. It is necessary to take into account all regional activities, including agricultural, and it is not easy to establish a direct link between air pollution and specific technologies. Usually one has to deal with a number of secondary substances arising from photochemical and biological processes.

Regional monitoring makes it possible to combine the data of impact and global background monitoring, and also makes it possible to identify the main ways of spreading pollutants to long distances... Direct information on the state of atmospheric pollution at the regional level can be obtained from observations in small settlements located far from large cities, provided that there are no sources of air pollution at these points. Information on the regional background air pollution is also obtained from the data of the network of observation posts for the transboundary transport of pollutants.

Observations of the transboundary transfer of pollutants are carried out within the framework of Co-operative Program for Monitoring and Evaluation of the Long-range Transmission of Air Pollutants in Europe - EMEP at four EMEP stations located in the North-West region and Central Russia. EMEP activities include regular analysis the content in the atmosphere and precipitation of chemical compounds that determine the acid-base balance, as well as the assessment of the concentrations and loads of sulfur and nitrogen compounds in the Northwest-Western and Central regions of Russia.

According to observational data, the dominant acid anion for the Russian EMEP stations is sulfate ion. The average values ​​of the concentrations and depositions of pollutants that determine transboundary pollution are relatively small and, according to existing concepts, cannot cause noticeable negative environmental effects.

To implement a program for monitoring acid deposition and its impact on the state of natural ecosystems in the eastern part of the Asian continent and archipelagos in the western part of the Pacific Ocean, Acid Depisition Monitoring Network in East Asia - EANET. There are four monitoring stations in Russia, three of which are located in the Baikal region and one in the Primorsky Territory. Continuous measurements at EANET stations in Russia have been carried out since 2001; according to observations at all Russian EANET stations, the content of S0 2 prevailed in the air among gaseous impurities.

Snow cover as an indicator of regional pollution

air

V regional systems monitoring of atmospheric air great attention is paid to observations of the degree of pollution of the snow cover. This is understandable, since its pollution is extremely clearly correlated with atmospheric air pollution and carries information about "dry" and "wet" fallout.

On the example of lead, mercury and copper, significant correlations were established, expressed by the following regression equations:

IPbJ in soil = 1324 [Pb] in atmospheric air + 6.3.

MPC Pb in air (0.3 μg / m 3) corresponds to a concentration in soil of 400 mg / kg;

[Cu] in soil = 526 [Cu] in atmospheric air + 457.

MPC for Cu in air (2.0 μg / m 3) corresponds to a concentration in the soil of 1500 mg / kg;

In soil = 1.3 in atmospheric air + 0.01;

MPC Hg in air (0.3 μg / m 3) corresponds to a concentration in soil of 0.4 mg / kg.

At present, a snow cover monitoring system has been organized in our country, operating on the basis of a snow survey network. The latter is carried out by Roshydromet as part of the program for obtaining data for the State Water Cadastre (GWC), one of the goals of which is to account for all the country's surface water reserves.

Snow survey has long been used to determine the moisture reserves in the soil, which is necessary to know during agricultural work. On the territory of Russia, about seven thousand snow measuring points previously functioned, therefore, giving them new function- measuring the concentration of priority pollutants - has become a completely natural addition to their work.

Benefits of snow monitoring are as follows:

• sampling is very simple and does not require special equipment;
• layer-by-layer sampling allows you to determine the history of air pollution throughout the entire snow season;
• snow in the most natural way ensures the concentration of impurities in comparison with the air environment, which simplifies the subsequent task of analyzing impurities;
• only one sample at the maximum moisture content is enough to obtain the average integral concentrations of priority impurities for the snow period;
• monitoring of snow cover makes it possible to assess the value of transboundary transfer of sulfur and ammonium nitrogen.

Of the seven thousand mentioned points of snow survey, 560 carry out chemical monitoring. The network density in the European part of Russia is one point per 8000 km 2, in the Asian part - one point per 30 thousand km 2. Monitoring covers almost the entire area of ​​the Russian Federation - 18.3 million km 2.

Sampling is done once a year for maximum moisture content. Sampling times vary in different regions of Russia. For example, in the Moscow region, a sample is taken in the 2nd or 3rd decade of March, and on Dikson Island - in the 3rd decade of April or even in the 2nd decade of May.

The observations were organized for the following cations and anions: Na, K, Mg, Ca, NH 4, СГ, NO3, S0 4 2 ", НСО3 and pH. About 30% of the points provide information on heavy metals and polyaromatic hydrocarbons.

The densest network of observation points was created in densely populated regions, as well as along the western border of the USSR. These border stations were responsible for monitoring transboundary movements. About 40% of the stations assess the pollution of snow around cities, 40% control the spread of pollutants from industrial centers to cleaner regions, and 20% perform the functions of background monitoring. The highest frequency of snow cover acidification (pH = 4.0-5.6) is 42% in the regions of the Urals and 54% in the North of Western Siberia. In the north of the European territory of Russia, acidification is noted in 26% of cases.

The boundaries of the distribution of snow cover over large areas can be fixed using space information. To study the dynamics of changes in snow areas, photographs are taken repeatedly, several times. Operational mapping of snow cover and the rate of retreat of its boundaries in the spring are traditionally used to solve practical tasks primarily for hydrological forecasts.

The water supply is determined by means of hydrological modeling, the forecast of runoff and snow floods in the river basins is carried out. A number of parameters for this - the area of ​​the river basin covered with snow, forest cover, arable land, etc. - can be obtained by remote sensing methods, and some parameters can be estimated indirectly. For example, zones covered by snow melting are identified in the near-infrared range of the spectrum, and the thickness of the snow cover is calculated from a series of sequential images, the speed of the snow accumulation boundaries and the air temperature.

Operational data on the snow storage of river basins serve as a basis for making decisions, for example, on partial draining of reservoirs during the spring snowmelt to prevent floods. In the future, it is planned to switch to determining the thickness of the snow cover from space by means of microwave radiometric survey. Thus, it will be possible for the basins of large rivers to receive directly maps of snow storage, and with data on snow density, water storage of snow cover.

Seasonal snow cover plays an exceptional role in the processes of self-development of mountain regions, determines the formation and regime of river runoff, glaciation and avalanches. With a significant impact on the climate, it itself serves as an indicator of climate change.

Maps of the distribution of snow cover obtained from the results of remote sensing help to understand the spatial features and interrelationships of glacial systems, to assess the contribution of various factors to the formation of glaciers and their conditions of existence. Exact information about the regime, distribution and variability of the snow cover, it is necessary to have for the successful implementation of water management measures and regulation of water resources in the river basins of mountainous areas with the existing water deficit in the steppe zone.

Snow is a good indicator of the spread of pollution around major cities. Pollutants fall out of the atmosphere in dry form and with precipitation and accumulate in the snow cover at long distances from sources - industrial enterprises, transport communications, etc. Snow pollution affects the brightness of the image on satellite images, which makes it possible, together with the results of sample processing snow map areas and intensity of polluting impacts.

The differences are most noticeable in the characteristics of snow cover in cities and in background areas in spring, although they are formed in winter. During snow melting, these contrasts become more pronounced due to the accumulation of pollutants thawing from the snow (the tone density corresponds to the degree of snow pollution).

Background monitoring

The growth of pollutant emissions into the atmosphere as a result of industrialization and urbanization processes leads to an increase in the content of impurities at a considerable distance from pollution sources and to global changes in the composition of the atmosphere, which, in turn, can lead to many undesirable consequences, including climate change. ... In this regard, it is necessary to determine and constantly monitor the level of atmospheric pollution far beyond the zone of direct action of industrial sources and the tendency of its further changes.

The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) in the 60s of the XX century. a worldwide network of background air pollution monitoring stations (BAPMoN) was created. Its purpose was to obtain information about the background levels of concentration of atmospheric components, their variations and long-term changes, by which one can judge the influence of human activity on the state of the atmosphere.

The growing acuteness of the problem of environmental pollution on a global scale led to the creation in the 1970s. the United Nations Environment Committee (UNEP / UNEP), which decided to establish The global system environmental monitoring (GEMS), designed to monitor the background state of the biosphere as a whole and, above all, the processes of its pollution.

Since 1989, BAPMoN stations have been renamed GAW (WMO Global Atmosphere Watch, www.wmo.int) stations, they are responsible for observing and timely sending the received primary data to their supervising Directorate of Hydrometeorology (UGM) and the Main Geophysical Observatory (MGO) them. A.I. Voeikova.

The UGM is entrusted with the tasks of ensuring and monitoring the operation of background stations, as well as introducing new methods for monitoring the background state of the atmosphere proposed for the network. MGO is a national scientific and methodological center for work on background atmospheric monitoring within the framework of the WMO GAW program. Currently, on the territory of the Russian Federation, the GAW network includes five background stations - Ust-Vym (Komi Republic), Shadzatmaz (North Caucasus), Pamyatnaya (Kurgan Region), Turukhansk (Krasnoyarsk Territory), Khuzhir (Olkhon Island on Baikal).

Placing stations

As a rule, background observations by special program background ecological monitoring is carried out in biosphere reserves and protected areas. Previously, biosphere reserves were located throughout the USSR. They assess and predict atmospheric air pollution by analyzing the content of suspended particles, lead, cadmium, arsenic, mercury, benz (a) pyrene, sulfates, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, carbon dioxide, ozone, DDT and other organochlorine compounds. The background environmental monitoring program also includes the determination of the background level of pollutants of anthropogenic origin in all environments, including biota. In addition to measuring the state of air pollution at background stations, meteorological measurements are also carried out.

Information received from background stations allows one to assess the state and trends of global changes in atmospheric air pollution. Background observations are also carried out by research vessels in the seas and oceans.

It is believed that 30-40 base stations on land and up to 10 in the water area of ​​the World Ocean are sufficient for the entire Earth. The number of regional stations and their location should ensure a fairly quick identification of all negative trends in a given region. On the territory of Russia there are five stations of integrated background monitoring (SCFM), which are located in biosphere reserves: Voronezh, Prioksko-Terrasny, Astrakhan, Kavkazsky, Altai.

When organizing integrated background monitoring stations

pay attention to the fact that their location in terms of their landscape and climatic characteristics should be representative of the region. The assessment of representativeness begins with an analysis of climatic, topographic, soil, botanical, geological and other materials.

After choosing the area, it is necessary to take into account the sources of pollution available in the area. In the presence of large local sources (administrative and industrial centers with a population of more than 500 thousand people), the distance to the SCFM observation range should be at least 100 km. If this is not possible, then the SCFM should be positioned so that the repeatability air flow, causing the transfer of pollutants from the source in the direction of the station, did not exceed 20-30%.

SCFM includes stationary observation range and chemical laboratory. The observation range is made up of sampling sites, gauging stations and, in some cases, observation wells. At the landfill, samples of atmospheric air and precipitation, water, soil, vegetation are taken, as well as hydrometeorological and geophysical measurements.

A site measuring 50 x 50 m, which houses the sampling equipment and measuring instruments is called support (base) platform background station. It should be located on a flat area of ​​the landscape with a low degree of closure of the horizon, away from buildings, forest belts, hills and other obstacles that contribute to the occurrence of local orographic disturbances, i.e., features of the terrain. The site is equipped with air sampling devices, sediment collectors, gas analyzers, and a typical set of meteorological instruments.

The chemical laboratory of the station is located at a distance of no closer than 500 m from the support site; it processes and analyzes that part of the samples that cannot be sent to the regional laboratory: the content of suspended particles (dust), sulfates and sulfur dioxide in the atmospheric air; measurement of pH, electrical conductivity, concentration of anions and cations in atmospheric deposition.

GAW stations- background stations are divided into three categories: base, regional and continental.

Base stations should be located in the cleanest places, in the mountains, on isolated islands. Their main task is to monitor the global background level of atmospheric pollution, which is not affected by any local sources.

Regional stations should be located in rural areas, at least 40 km from major sources of pollution. Their goal is to detect long-term fluctuations in atmospheric components in the station area, caused by changes in land use and other anthropogenic influences.

Continental stations cover more wide range studies compared with regional stations. They should be located in remote areas so that there are no sources within a radius of 100 km that could affect local levels pollution.

Station surveillance programs

On KFM stations one of the principles of background monitoring is being implemented - a comprehensive study of the content of pollutants in the components of ecosystems. In this regard, the observation program at SCFM includes systematic measurements of the content of pollutants simultaneously in all media (Table 4.1), supplemented by hydrometeorological data.

Table 4.1.List of components to be controlled at stations CFM

The list of substances included in the program has been compiled taking into account such properties as their prevalence and persistence in the environment, the ability to migrate over long distances, the degree of negative impact on biological and geophysical systems of various levels.

V atmospheric air the average daily concentrations of: suspended solids, ozone, carbon and nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, sulfates, 3,4-benz (a) pyrene, DCT and other organochlorine compounds, lead, cadmium, mercury, arsenic, an indicator of atmospheric aerosol turbidity are to be measured ...

V atmospheric precipitation Concentrations of lead, mercury, cadmium, arsenic, 3,4-benz (a) pyrene, DCT and other organochlorine compounds, pH, anions and cations are to be measured in total monthly samples.

Meteorological observations include observations of:

• temperature and humidity;
• wind speed and direction;
• atmospheric pressure, cloudiness (quantity, shape, height);
• sunshine;
• atmospheric phenomena (fog, blizzards, thunderstorms, dust storms, etc.);
• atmospheric precipitation (quantity and intensity);
• snow cover (height, moisture content);
• soil temperature (at the surface and in depth);
• the state of the soil surface;
• radiation (direct, scattered, total and reflected) and radiation balance;
• gradients of temperature, humidity and wind speed at a height of 0.5-10 m, gradients of temperature, soil moisture at a depth of 0-20 cm;
• thermal balance.

V compulsory program observations on base stations GAW included observations of the content of sulfur dioxide, aerosol turbidity of the atmosphere, radiation, suspended aerosol particles, and the chemical composition of precipitation.

At the regional stations, the observation program includes the measurement of atmospheric turbidity, the concentration of suspended aerosol particles, and the determination of the chemical composition of atmospheric precipitation.

Background station observation program different categories can be expanded by increasing the number of gases detected in the atmosphere, in particular, small gaseous components, the volume concentration of which is less than 1% and which, being transformed in the atmosphere, can turn into aerosol particles.

Any observations under the background monitoring program must be accompanied by a complex compulsory meteorological observations- visibility, atmospheric phenomena, air temperature and humidity, wind direction and speed, atmospheric pressure... Therefore, it is desirable to carry out background observations on the basis of meteorological stations.

According to UN experts, the first five air pollutants subject to control are located in the next

Table 4.2.Classification of pollutants according to their priority

row: S0 2, Oz, NO x, Pb, C0 2 (Table 4.2). It should be noted that the intake of these substances into the surface layer of the atmosphere as a result of anthropogenic activity is comparable to the natural intake.