L. Brillouin notes that the establishment of any criterion of value leads to an assessment of the information received. This is tantamount to selecting information that has a certain measure of quality. Some of it can be recognized as important and preserved along with all its value, while another part can be considered worthless and discarded.

The value of information is a property determined by its suitability for practical use in various areas of purposeful activity. The value and usefulness of information is determined by its qualitative and quantitative characteristics. The quality of information can be considered as the degree of development of properties that determine its practical suitability (completeness, reliability, etc.). The usefulness of information is determined by how much it reduces the uncertainty of the situation, and is associated with an assessment of its required amount. The amount of information that characterizes the message to be transmitted does not depend on its semantic content. The quality and quantity of information cannot be unambiguously characterized by any one indicator and are determined using a number of characteristics.

The evaluative characteristics of information were studied on the basis of synchronic and diachronic approaches. The synchronic approach concentrated on the study of the essence of semantic, pragmatic, axiological properties; the diachronic approach focused on the process of formation and development of these properties of information.

Within the framework of the synchronic approach, the objective meaning of sign expressions was initially studied, while the meaning continued to remain “in the shadows”. Semantic theory arose as an attempt to measure the content (meaning) of messages in the form of judgments, using terms such as "description of a state", "measure of description of a state", with the corresponding apparatus of inductive (probabilistic) logic.

Semantic information is the meaning, or content, contained in a given message. From the point of view of cybernetics, semantics determines the measure of meaning and controls its losses in the message system.

The semantic aspect of studying the properties of information made it possible to clarify the concept of "amount of information". Yu. A. Shreider proposed a way to quantify the figurative, semantic meaning of signs. He used the concept thesaurus as a kind of stock of knowledge, recorded in the form of words and semantic connections between them. The meaning contained in the message is described by correlating it with the semantic information stored in the receiver (thesaurus), the amount of which is expressed by the degree of change in the thesaurus under the influence of the message (text) perceived by the receiver.

EK Voishvillo introduced the concept of “entropy of a question-problem”. The quality of information in relation to the problem is determined by how much the proof or assumption of the truth of the judgment is capable of reduce entropy Problems . D. M. McKay proposed to consider a unit of semantic information "logon", or such "increment of knowledge", which adds to the already existing some minimally distinguishable part.

The synchronous approach to the analysis of the phenomenon of information has also realized itself within the framework of axiological and pragmatic theories.

The axiological aspect of studying the properties of information made it possible to clarify the concepts of its quality and quantity. The same information can be of different value when viewed from the point of view of its use for different purposes. The value of the information received is conditional, since it depends on its recipient: the same message may turn out to be very important for someone, but for another it will not matter. The axiological theory defines a measure for estimating the amount of information contained in a message through reducing uncertainty contained in one random variable relative to another.

The pragmatic aspect of information reflects its characteristics in terms of usefulness, suitability for solving certain problems. The amount of pragmatic information is given in terms of the objective function. In this case, the a posteriori (after the experiment) and the a priori uncertainty of the problem are usually compared in some way, and the degree of a priori and a posteriori (based on additional information) of success in achieving the goal is compared. The final assessment of pragmatic information is formed in absolute and relative units.

A.A. Kharkevich was one of the first to draw attention to the possibility of measuring the value of information. He proposed to determine the value of information through increase in the probability of achieving a goal for which information is collected (probabilities of achieving the goal before and after receiving the information). It was proposed to calculate the value of information by measuring its quantity. Cybernetic options for measuring the value of information using the theory of games and decisions, optimal control algorithms were also proposed by M. M. Bongard, R. L. Stratonovich, T. A. Grishanin, and others.

The diachronic version of the analysis of information parameters involves the consideration of its process semantic and value-pragmatic characteristics. The quality of information can be interpreted as a process, because, firstly, it is subject to the action of the time factor (time can reduce or even eliminate the information qualities inherent in a subject or object); secondly, the formation and functioning of the quality of information is accompanied by one or another of its transformations. Thus, the semantic information contained in the message is evaluated the degree of changes in the thesaurus under the influence of this message.

The value of marketing information is not limited to the parameters of its quality and quantity. According to John O'Shaughnessy, the value of information can be measured cost of solutions, taken on its basis, and expressed in monetary equivalent of the difference between decisions made in the presence of information and in its absence. The value of marketing information also depends on the importance of the decision to be made, the level of uncertainty, and the degree to which the information received will influence the decision. If the decision is very significant, for example, for a large investment or can determine the success of the organization in the long term, the value of the information will be great. For information to be considered valuable, the uncertainty about the decision to be made must be high. If it is known in advance where the decision will lead, or if the results of the research cannot influence it, then the value of the information is zero.

The study of the concept of information using different criteria made it possible to identify properties that determine the degree of its suitability for making managerial decisions and the basic principles of information flow management. In epistemological terms, it turned out to be important to take into account that the value of information directly depends on goals, which is set by its consumer - a person (society). As J. O'Shaunessy notes, information can be considered significant only if, in the managers' opinion, it is related to their tasks, that is, it can influence their decisions. At the same time, as already mentioned, information is characterized by a specific aging mechanism in comparison with the obsolescence of fixed assets and the aging of material consumer goods. Information does not wear out, but its value diminishes over time. For example, in accordance with the process approach to the assessment of information, the information used no longer represents "initial" value if the control system has achieved the set goal. However, information activities should take into account multidimensional character the value itself: it is not limited to the subjective interest of an individual or a group of people. It seems that the value of information is also determined by its content. It contains the objective truth about the reality that surrounds a person, regardless of how it is perceived by an individual subject or their totality. This leads to the storage and reuse of information (for example, a retrospective analysis of the problem helps to structure the hypotheses of the forthcoming marketing research).

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• I... Not matter and not energy
• 1.1 Information transfer scheme
• 1.2 Value of information
• II... Economic information and its features
• Conclusion

I. Not matter and not energy

Information- information about the world around us, about the processes taking place in it, which are perceived by living organisms, control machines and other information systems.

Information is a reflection of the outside world using signs or signals. The informational value of a message lies in the new information it contains (in reducing ignorance).

Information properties:

1) completeness,

2) reliability,

3) value,

4) relevance,

5) clarity.

The word "information" is Latin. Over its long life, its meaning has undergone evolution, now expanding, then extremely narrowing its boundaries. Initially, the word "information" meant: "presentation", "concept", then - "information", "message transfer".

In recent years, scientists have decided that the usual (all accepted) meaning of the word "information" is too elastic, vague, and gave it the following meaning: " measure certainties v message".

Information theory was brought into being by the needs of practice. Its origin is associated with the work of Claude Shannon "Mathematical theory of communication", published in 1946. The foundations of information theory are based on the results obtained by many scientists. By the second half of the 20th century, the globe was buzzing with transmitted information running through telephone and telegraph cables and radio channels. Later, electronic computers appeared - information processors. And for that time, the main task of information theory was, first of all, to increase the efficiency of the functioning of communication systems. The difficulty in the design and operation of means, systems and communication channels is that it is not enough for a designer and engineer to solve a problem from a physical and energy standpoint. From these points of view, the system can be the most perfect and economical. But it is also important when creating transmission systems to pay attention to what number information will pass through this transmission system. After all, information can be measured quantitatively, counted. And they act in such calculations in the most usual way: they abstract from the meaning of the message, as they abandon concreteness in the arithmetic operations that are familiar to all of us (like from adding two apples and three apples to adding numbers in general: 2 + 3).

The scientists stated that they "completely ignored the human assessment of information." For example, they assign a certain meaning to information to a sequential series of 100 letters, regardless of whether this information has meaning and whether, in turn, it has meaning in practical application. The quantitative approach is the most developed branch of information theory. By this definition, a collection of 100 letters - a 100-letter phrase from a newspaper, a Shakespeare play, or Einstein's theorem - has exactly the same amount of information.

This quantification of information is eminently useful and practical. It exactly corresponds to the task of the communications engineer, who must transmit all the information contained in the submitted telegram, regardless of the value of this information to the addressee. The communication channel is soulless. One thing is important to the transmitting system: to transmit the required amount of information in a certain time. How do you calculate the amount of information in a particular message?

The estimation of the amount of information is based on the laws of probability theory, more precisely, it is determined through the probabilities of events. This is understandable. A message has value, carries information only when we learn from it about the outcome of an event of a random nature, when it is to some extent unexpected. After all, the message about the already known does not contain any information. Those. if, for example, someone calls you on the phone and says: "It is light during the day and dark at night," then such a message will surprise you only with the absurdity of the obvious and well-known statement, and not with the news it contains.

Another thing is, for example, the result of a race at a horse race. Who will come first? The outcome here is difficult to predict.

The more an event of interest to us has random outcomes, the more valuable the message about its result, the more information.

An event message that has only two equally possible outcomes contains one piece of information called bit... The choice of a unit of information is not accidental. It is related to the most common binary way of encoding it in transmission and processing.

Let us try, at least in the most simplified form, to imagine the general principle of the quantitative assessment of information, which is the cornerstone of the entire theory of information.

We already know that the amount of information depends on the probabilities of certain outcomes of an event. If an event, as scientists say, has two equally probable outcomes, this means that the probability of each outcome is 1/2. This is the probability of getting "heads" or "tails" when a coin is tossed. If an event has three equally probable outcomes, then the probability of each is 1/3. Note that the sum of the probabilities of all outcomes is always equal to one: after all, one of all possible outcomes will surely come.

An event, as you yourself understand, can have unequal outcomes. So, in a football match between a strong and a weak team, the probability of a strong team winning is high - for example, 4/5. The probability of a draw is much less, for example 3/20. The likelihood of defeat is very small.

information economic value sign

It turns out that numberinformation - itmeasuredecreaseuncertaintiessomesituations... Different amounts of information are transmitted over communication channels, and numberpassingacrosschannelinformationnotmaybebemorehisthroughputcapabilities... And it is determined by how much information passes here per unit of time.

One of the heroes of Jules Verne's novel "The Mysterious Island", the journalist Gideon Spillett, transmitted a chapter from the Bible by phone so that his competitors could not use the telephone. In this case, the channel was fully loaded, and the amount of information was equal to zero, since the information known to him was transmitted to the subscriber. This means that the channel was idle, passing a strictly defined number of pulses, without loading them with anything.

Meanwhile, the more information each of a certain number of pulses carries, the more fully the channel bandwidth is used. Therefore, you need to intelligently encode information, find an economical, stingy language for transmitting messages.

Information is "sifted" in the most careful way. In the telegraph, frequently encountered letters, combinations of letters, even whole phrases are depicted with a shorter set of zeros and ones, and those that are less common - with a longer one. Vcase,whenreducethe lengthcodethe wordsforoftenmeetingcharactersandincreaseforrarelymeeting,they sayabouteffective coding information.

But in practice, it quite often happens that the code resulting from the most careful "sifting", the code is convenient and economical, can distort the message due to interference, which, unfortunately, always occurs in communication channels: sound distortion in the phone, atmospheric interference in radio, distortion or darkening of the image in television, errors in transmission in the telegraph. These interferences, or, as experts call them, noises, strike the information. And from this there are the most incredible and, naturally, unpleasant surprises.

Therefore, to increase the reliability in the transmission and processing of information, it is necessary to introduce extra characters - a kind of protection against distortion. They - these extra characters - do not carry the actual content in the message, they redundant... From the point of view of information theory, everything that makes a language colorful, flexible, rich in shades, multifaceted, multi-valued is redundancy. How redundant from such positions Tatyana's letter to Onegin! How many informational excesses it contains for a short and understandable message "I love you"! And how informationally accurate are the drawn designations, understandable to everyone and everyone who enters the metro today, where instead of words and phrases of announcements there are laconic symbolic signs indicating: "Entry", "Exit".

In this regard, it is useful to recall the anecdote told at one time by the famous American scientist Benjamin Franklin about the hat-maker who invited his friends to discuss the draft of the sign.

It was supposed to draw a hat on the sign and write: "John Thompson, the hat maker, makes and sells hats for cash."

A friend commented that the words "for cash" were superfluous - such a reminder would be offensive to the buyer. Another also found the word “sells” superfluous, since it goes without saying that the hat maker sells hats, and does not give them away for free. The third thought that the words "hatman" and "makes hats" were unnecessary tautology, and the last words were thrown out. The fourth suggested throwing out the word "hat-maker" too - the drawn hat clearly says who John Thompson is. Finally, the fifth insisted that it made no difference to the buyer whether the hat-maker would be called John Thompson or otherwise, and suggested that this indication be dispensed with.

Thus, in the end, nothing was left on the sign but the hat.

Of course, if people used only this kind of codes, without redundancy in messages, then all "information forms" - books, reports, articles - would be extremely short. But they would lose in clarity and beauty.

1.1 Information transfer scheme

Every event, every phenomenon serves as a source of information.

Any event, any phenomenon can be expressed in different ways, in different ways, in different alphabet. To information more exactly and sparingly hand over on channels communication, her necessary respectively encode.

Information cannot exist without a material carrier, without energy transfer. The encoded message takes the form of information carrier signals. It is they who walk along the channel. Having reached the receiver, the signals should regain a generally comprehensible form.

For this purpose, the signals pass through the decoding device, acquiring a form that is convenient for the subscriber. The communication system worked, the goal was achieved. When they talk about communication channels, about communication systems, the telegraph is most often taken as an example. But communication channels are a very broad concept, including many different systems, very different.

To clarify the multifaceted nature of the concept of "communication channel", it is enough to give a few examples.

In a telephone transmission, the source of the message is the speaker. The encoder that changes the sounds of words into electrical impulses is a microphone. The channel through which information is transmitted is a telephone wire. The part of the tube that we bring to the ear acts as a decoding device. Here, electrical signals are again converted into sounds. Finally, the information goes to the "receiving device" - the person's ear at the other end of the wire. But the communication channel of a completely different nature is a living nerve. Here all messages are transmitted by a nerve impulse. But in technical communication channels, the direction of transmission of information can change, and along the nervous system, the transmission goes in one direction.

Another example is a computing machine. And here are the same characteristics. Individual computer systems transmit information to each other using signals. After all, a computer is an automatic device for processing information, just like a machine is a device for metal processing. The machine does not create information from "nothing", it transforms only what is entered into it.

General information transfer scheme.

1.2 Value of information

We already know that the quantitative method - one of the directions in information theory - is the most widespread and most developed. There are other methods as well. They, in contrast to quantitative, try to grasp the meaning of information, its value, its quality.

The amount of information in two messages can be exactly the same, but the meaning is completely different. Two words, for example "Peace" and "Rome", contain the same amount of information, consist of the same letters, but the meaning of the words is different.

In everyday life, we, as a rule, evaluate the information received from the semantic side: we perceive new information not as a certain amount of information, but as new content. Is it possible to calculate the meaning of information, calculate it in a message? Yes, it is trying to do semantictheoryinformation... Here is another example and one more direction (pragmatic - business) in this science.

Passengers ride the bus. The driver announces a stop. Some come out, the rest do not pay attention to the driver's words - the information conveyed to him. Why? Because the information here has different value for recipients, who are passengers in this example. The one for whom the information was valuable came out. Means, valuecandefinehowpropertyinformation,influencingon thebehaviorherrecipient.

II. Economic information and its features

Information is a fundamental concept of computer science. Economic information is understood as knowledge that reduces uncertainty in relation to the objects of interest, events, processes occurring in the economic sphere, and the management and processing of economic information is called EIS. Economic information is characterized by simple algorithms, the predominance of logical operations on arithmetic, tabular presentation of input and output data. The most important feature of the classification of an economic information system:

relation to this control system, this allows you to divide messages into input, internal, output.

a sign of time, messages are divided into perspective (planned and predicted information), retrospective (accounting information).

by time of admission: periodically, by request.

functional feature, according to the functional subsystems of the object: - information about labor, material, financial resources, about production processes. - a sign of stability: constant (data never change), conditionally constant, variable. Stability coefficient = number of unchanged information / total number of information units Coefficient = 0.88 information is conditionally constant.

The structure of economic information determines its structure, the allocation of certain documents. Such elements are called information items. Complex IEs are formed from simple IEs. The smallest indivisible IE is a props - an attribute. Requisites can be divided into two groups: base and attributes. The base characterizes the quantitative properties of the entity, obtained as a result of the issuance of counting natural units, weighing, measuring, calculating.

The signs usually express the qualitative properties of the entity and characterize the circumstances under which the requisites - the grounds - were obtained. A larger IE than the requisites is an indicator. Indicators are formed from a single base and related attribute details. Even larger indicators are arrays and streams.

The array is a set of indicators and attributes combined by the homogeneity criterion. The collection of arrays related to one control function is called a thread. The set of flows characterizing management work as a whole is called the information system of the control object. In the process of decomposition of the components of the economic information system, the following are distinguished: functional and supporting parts.

Functional- a number of subsystems that depend on the characteristics of a particular economic information system. These subsystems are divided according to a specific feature (functional or structural) and combine the corresponding complexes of control tasks. The supporting part of the economic information system consists of: information, software, mathematical, technical, legal, linguistic, ergonomic and metrological parts. The information support includes external and intramachine support. (the out-of-machine software is: classifiers of technical and economic information, normative reference information, methodological materials for the organization and use of the listed components. In-machine information support is an information base and a DBMS, software is a set of programs that implement the goals and objectives of the EIS).

The composition of the software: system-wide, applied software, instructional and methodological materials on the use of software tools. The software includes: a set of methods for solving control problems, models, information processing algorithms. The technical support includes the whole range of technical means that ensure the operation of the system, i.e. technical means of collecting, registering, transmitting, processing, displaying, and multiplying information.

Conclusion

In information theory in our time, many systems, methods, approaches, ideas are being developed. However, scientists believe that new trends in information theory will be added to modern trends and new ideas will appear. As proof of the correctness of their assumptions, they cite the "living", developing nature of science, indicate that the theory of information is surprisingly quickly and firmly introduced into the most diverse areas of human knowledge. Information theory has penetrated into physics, chemistry, biology, medicine, philosophy, linguistics, pedagogy, economics, logic, technical sciences, and aesthetics. According to the experts themselves, the doctrine of information, which arose due to the needs of the theory of communication and cybernetics, has stepped over their framework. And now, perhaps, we have the right to talk about information as a scientific concept that gives researchers an information-theoretic method, with the help of which one can penetrate into many sciences about animate and inanimate nature, about society, which will allow not only to look at all the problems with a new side, but also to see the unseen. That is why the term "information" has become widespread in our time, becoming part of such concepts as information system, information culture, even information ethics.

Many scientific disciplines use information theory to emphasize a new direction in the old sciences. This is how, for example, information geography, information economy, information law arose.

But the term "information" has acquired extremely great importance in connection with the development of the latest computer technology, the automation of mental labor, the development of new means of communication and information processing, and especially with the emergence of informatics.

One of the most important tasks of information theory is the study of the nature and properties of information, the creation of methods for its processing, in particular the transformation of various modern information into computer programs, with the help of which the automation of mental work takes place, a kind of strengthening of intelligence, and therefore the development of the intellectual resources of society.

Economic information reflects socio-economic processes in both production and non-production areas. Economic information, like any other, is necessary in order to make certain decisions.

In the structure of information activities, the following typical technological operations can be distinguished: collection of information (primary documents), analytical and synthetic processing of information, storage of information (formation and maintenance of an information fund), information retrieval, reproduction (copying, duplication) of documents, transmission of information, provision of processed information to consumers.

A data bank is a modern form of organizing storage and access to information in automated systems.

List of sources used

1. Pekelis V. Cybernetics from A to Y. M., 1990.

2. Dmitriev V. Applied theory of information. M., 1989.

3. Computing machines, systems and networks: Textbook / A.P. Pyatibratov, S.N. Belyaev, G.M. Kozyrev and others; Ed. Prof. A.P. Pyatibratova. - M .: Finance and statistics, 1991 .-- 400 p.

4. Chernyak N.G. and other Architecture of computing systems and networks: Textbook. allowance / N.G. Chernyak, I.N. Buravtseva, N.M. Pushkin. - 2nd ed., Rev. and add. - M .: Finance and statistics, 1986 .-- 318 p.

5. Figurnov V.E. IBM PC for the user, 2nd ed., Revised and enlarged. - M .: Finance and statistics, Computer Press, 1991. - 288 p.

6. Figurnov V.E. IBM PC for the user. Ed. 6th rev. And add. - M .: INFRA-M, 1996 .-- 432 p.

7. McDonagh R. Foundations of microcomputer computing: Per. from English / T.G. Nikolskaya; Ed. V.F. Shangin. - M .: Higher. Shk., 1989 .-- 272 p.

8. A. N. Voroshchuk. Fundamentals of digital computers and programming. The main editorial office of physical and mathematical literature of the publishing house "Nauka", M., 1978.

9. Abel P. Assembler language for IBM PC and programming / Per. from English Yu.V. Salnikov. - M .: Higher. Shk., 1992 .-- 447 p.

10. Ovechkin Yu.A. Microelectronics: Textbook for technical schools. - M .: Radio and communication, 1982 - 288 p.

11. Kagan B.M. Electronic computers and systems: Textbook. manual for universities. - 2nd ed., Rev. and add. - M .: Energoatomizdat, 1985 .-- 552 p.

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The creator of the classical information theory K. Shannon noted that the meaning (ie semantics - "about what") of messages has nothing to do with his theory of information and dealing with text messages. But the possibility of accurately measuring information in messages, created by Shannon's information theory, suggested the possibility of the existence of ways to measure information of a more general type - Kastler-Chernavsky macroinformation and semantic information contained in sentences of a natural or (at least) formalized language.

This task is far from being solved, but it has an ever-increasing theoretical and practical significance.

The concepts of value and meaningfulness of information are central to modern informatics and systems analysis. The semantic theory of information deals with the value of information, the meaning of messages.

The main provisions of the semantic theory of information.

1. The value of information depends on the purpose.

If the goal is achievable, then the value of information can be determined by reducing the cost of achieving it.

If the achievement of the goal is not necessary, then the value of information V according to Bongard and Kharkevich is equal to:

V = log 2; (5)

p is the probability of achieving the goal before receiving information;

P is the probability of reaching after receiving information;

The prior probability p depends on the information container, on the total amount of information I, determined by the formula (2): p = 2 - I.

So if all options are equally probable then p = 1 / n; I = log 2 n;

The posterior probability P can be either greater or less than p; then (P< p). Это – дезинформация. При изменении апостериорной вероятности P в пределах 0

The value of information according to Korogodin is given by the formula:

It varies within V ≤ V ≤ 1.

2. The value of information depends on the value of p, on the so-called thesaurus (preliminary information).

If there is no preliminary information, then p =;

and if p = 1 then the value V = V max = log 2 n; those. coincides with the maximum amount of information in a given set of symbols (in a given information container).

This coincidence is not accidental, it was for this that formula (5) was chosen to determine the value of information - while the value of information can be understood as the amount of valuable information.

In formula (6) at

P = 1 we get:

So, according to Bongard-Kharkevich:

-∞ < V ≤ log2n

According to Korogodin (there is no concept of disinformation here)

0 ≤ V≤ 1 0 respectively P = 0, p = 0

When introducing the concept of disinformation

Pmin= 0 Pmin=

Pmax = 1 Pmax= 1 P

3. The amount of information that has zero value, as a rule, is not small with the amount of information that has at least some value for the recipient (recipient).

It is clear that the value of information is subjective - it depends on the goals and the thesaurus of the recipient.

Nonsense information is information that is of no value to anyone interested in the meaning of the text. Accordingly, as the opposite, the concept arises meaningful information.

The objectivity of the concept of "meaningful information" is based on the following statement: in the information container where this information can be placed, it is possible to select a certain amount of information that will not be needed for anyone, for any business. This is meaningless information, everything else is meaningful. But! The meaningfulness of the text depends on the thesaurus. For a person who does not know hieroglyphs, any text composed of them is a meaningless text.

So, the distinction between the concepts of "amount of information", "value of information", "meaningfulness of information" is very important.

First, in traditional informatics, based on the classical information theory (called by the author, Shannon "mathematical theory of communication"), there are no questions about valuable information, its origin and evolution. Value is considered under the assumption that the goal is set from the outside. The question of the spontaneous emergence of a goal within the system is not considered.

From the point of view of systems theory, processes in connections are considered here, and systems analysis needs both connections and elements. And the concept of purpose plays a fundamental role in systems analysis, since it deals with purposeful systems.

In synergetics, where these problems are also investigated, it is shown [Chernavsky] that the value of information can evolve: invaluable information becomes valuable, and meaningless information becomes meaningful, and vice versa. The goals of the system can arise, change and disappear in the process of development.

Secondly, the identification of the concepts of simple information, valuable information, meaningful information leads to misunderstandings. For them, it is impossible to give a single objective (perceived by all) and constructive (useful for the development of science and practice) definition. On the contrary, by dividing these concepts, one can give a constructive definition to each of them, stipulate the measure of convention and subjectivity.

We have previously discussed measures of the value of information. This is the Bongard-Kharkevich measure, and the Korogodin measure.

Here are two more measures related to the truth of information [Lidovsky].

inf (s) = -log2 p (s) = -1.44 ln p (s)

where s - a sentence whose meaning is being measured;

p (s) - the likelihood that the offer S- true.

It is clear that this measure is only suitable for simple sentences. But nonetheless.

Some properties of the function inf (s):

1) inf (s) ≥ 0 insofar as 0 ≤ p (s) ≤ 1;

2) at p (s) = 1, inf (s) = 0(no information is contained in the trivial (true) sentence);

3) at p (s) → 0, inf (s) → ∞- the more unexpected the message, the more information it contains.

It follows from properties (2) and (3) that p (s) matches a priori information R in the Bongard and Korogodin formulas.

But here it is “external” information in the message, and there it is “internal”, which is also determined by the recipient's thesaurus.

4) if s1→ s2(from s1 should s2) is true, then inf (s1) ≥ inf (s2);

5) conditions of independence: inf (s1s2) = inf (s1) + inf (s2) ↔ p (s1) * p (s2) = p (s1 * s2).

Measure function value inf (s) more for proposals that exclude a large number of possibilities. Example: from s1: “A> 3” from s2: “A = 7”, it follows that s1→ s2 and inf (s2)> inf (s1). It's clear that s2 excludes more possibilities than s1.

cont (s) = 1 - p (s).

The relationship between these measures is given by the formulas:

cont (s) = 1 - 2-inf (s) = 1 - e-0.69 inf (s);

inf (s) = -log2 (1 - cont (s)) = -0.69ln (1 - inf (s))

Task. Calculate measures of truth inf (s) and cont (s) for three sentences:

1) suggestions s1, about which it is known that it is reliable by 25%;

2) suggestions s2 50% reliable;

3) suggestions s3, 75% reliable.

The work is available in full only for official users of Beckmology. For the rest, there is an opportunity to purchase a work for 500 rubles. Address: becmology at gmail.com

The question of the value of this or that information in the daily practice of any adult or company arises so often that their understanding of the category of "information value" is taken for granted. People invariably associate such value with usefulness and benefit for themselves, i.e. information is valuable if useful / beneficial. It would seem that everything is clear, there is nothing further to talk about. But even with the most superficial analysis of this topic, many interesting details arise related to the perception of the value of information and the impact on it.

Not only is the scale of information value different for each individual, it can still be easily changed, and around this change the efforts of a whole army of managers, salesmen, writers, and political strategists are concentrated. Competition for the consumer has grown into competition in the sphere of channels for providing psychological influence. Management theorists have developed special tools for managing customer values. In the social sphere, sophisticated technologies are used that affect the mechanisms of forming values ​​in various social groups. Interest in this topic is growing every year, because managing the perception of the value of information provides truly unlimited possibilities. Undoubtedly, everyone who understands this and masters this "science" will be able to achieve their goals faster, and the goals that he sets for himself will become more rational. First, we need to stop confusing the concepts of “psychological impact” and “information value management”.

The generally accepted definition of the value of information is formulated as follows. The value of information depends on the purpose of its recipient. The more information helps to achieve a goal, the more valuable it is considered. If the goal is achievable in several possible ways, the value of information can be determined by the reduction in resource costs (material, time) brought by this information.

Although, in principle, it is clear what it is about, this definition clearly requires decoding, because it hides a lot of details, which give the term "information value" full right to exist.

The value (value) of information is determined not on the basis of the labor expended on its production, but on the basis of its value for the consumer. The value will be proportional to the estimated amount of benefits derived by its consumer. Moreover, if the benefit cannot be obtained immediately after receiving the information, its cost decreases. The lowering the cost coefficient of relevance will be the less, the more distant and uncertain the prospect of using the information. So, the low price of any kind of educational literature is associated precisely with the extremely low coefficient of relevance of the information contained in it.

The value of information for its consumer will be maximum if, immediately after its perception, the individual can use it with immediate material benefit. The criterion for direct assessment of the usefulness of the information obtained is size of material benefit... All other criteria will be indirect, i.e. will not be directly related to possible material benefits. For example, knowledge of mathematics can bring undoubted benefits, pleasure and even material benefits. But to get this benefit, you need to make a lot of additional efforts: either become a tutor and find rich students, or write a research paper with a significant economic effect, or defend a thesis and become a professor at a prestigious university.

Information "the key to the apartment where the money is" is much more valuable for any individual than information about the psyche of managers, staff motivation in a crisis, the principles of building effective teams, etc. So, valuable information should always contain some kind of direct instruction for obtaining or saving a scarce resource.

If there is a lot of information, then its value inevitably decreases. This, in all likelihood, occurs in connection with the purely mental characteristics of the human perception system. Interest in information dissipates if it cannot be immediately emphasized with clear accents that are important for deciding on its use.

From the standpoint of the designated criterion for assessing the value of information - the size of the material benefit received "here and now" - the value of any book will be practically zero. This is clearly evidenced by its price. The price includes the cost of production and distribution, commissions from publishing houses and royalties. As a rule, the author's royalty directly depends on the circulation. Copyright royalties are usually 5-12% of the total cost of the print run. The cost of a print run is calculated simply: the selling price of one book must be multiplied by the number of books (print run). The selling price of the publishing house at the time of 2010 was approximately 70-80 rubles for one hardcover book. The sellers do the markup 100-300%. The size of the author's fee for a book published with a circulation of 11,000 copies will be approximately 50 thousand rubles. That fee hardly covers the cost of writing a book.

You can publish your work with the help of a literary agency. At the beginning of 2015, the amount of remuneration to the author is, as a rule, about 1,800 rubles per copyright sheet (40,000 characters with spaces). This is 45 rubles per thousand characters. For comparison, no more than 50 rubles per 1000 characters without spaces are received by so-called copywriters who write articles to order for websites. The purpose of creating such articles is one - the promotion (improvement of positions) of the site in the search engines Yandex and Google. In such articles, there can be no question of any semantic load. Only the keywords by which the consumer searches for goods on the Internet are important in them. Thus, the work of the author is equated to the little intellectual work of a copywriter / rewriter. This is directly evidenced by the purely symbolic fee he receives.

Typically, authors publish books to gain some prominence. Many writers agree to be left without money, if only their book was published. The books of the famous author are published and reprinted in large editions. This is where the impressive fees come in. However, they are by no means related to the value of the information provided, but to the scale of the commercial project.

Fame promises the author many material benefits. For a fee, he is asked to speak in the media, write a review, give a lecture, make a presentation. The "wedding general" is necessary to give greater social value to the process of extracting material benefits. For example, a computer manufacturing company uses well-known artists for marketing purposes to “promote” its own brand. It is quite natural that a product associated with a popular person is bought better, and a better-known brand wins the competition.

People who do not have valuable information for them in terms of deriving benefit from it "here and now" are forced to sell their services. They either sell their skilled labor or trade in information at their disposal that is of considerable value to others. A lawyer who knows the laws well can help a businessman to get out of a difficult situation. A mathematician can do a statistical analysis of sales and see some important marketing trend. A surveyor sells his survey services to a construction company that wants to build residential buildings in the area. An inventor sells his patents to a manufacturer, a government official sells various secrets to politicians and businessmen, etc.

Thus, there is a large category of people for whom the value of information is determined not by the benefit “here and now”, but by the benefit that they can get by using it in the future in some way. Here we can talk about potential value of information. We come to the conclusion that it is not the possession of information that is important, but exclusively its use. Only when knowledge is used for a purpose is it really important and valuable. The value of knowledge can be expressed through the effectiveness of its use in practice.

The information contained in a book chosen by a physicist, as a rule, will be of no value to an accountant, similarly to information in a book chosen by an accountant for a physicist. Both cases imply the presence of very common distant behavioral goals: to obtain an economic or mathematical education, i.e. build special displays of the problem environment. Quantifying the value of potential information in these cases is hardly possible.

So, the value of information is a more general property than the usefulness of information. In addition to useful information, that is, realized information, information can have potential value, be set aside for future tasks.

A truly rational person will only be interested in information that makes a profit "here and now." But who will voluntarily provide him with such information ?! Why would anyone hand over the "chicken that lays the golden eggs"? This means that the rational must get someone to produce useful information. But where is the guarantee that the forced laborer will work hard for the master and give him another enrichment technology? Rather, he will create a deadly weapon in order to get rid of the oppression of his hated master. Here, however, there is a variant that the rational will exchange valuable information for a worthy reward - and this is how the economy works. However, we all know very well how economic exchange actually works.

An entrepreneur always thinks in very specific categories, in the field of his immediate interests is only the process of extracting material benefits (obtaining scarce resources), which he has begun, and he readily pays for services that are directly related to this process. Spending on fashionable clothes, delicacies, education, entertainment and recreation are indirect costs in the process of life, clearly focused on obtaining material benefits. So, in the economy, indirect costs are costs that, unlike direct costs, cannot be directly attributed to the cost of manufacturing products (rendering services, providing work) by an enterprise or organization. The composition of indirect costs is clearly defined in the economy of the enterprise; for the hotel individual, it will be approximately the same. In times of crisis, the first to start saving is on indirect costs - this pattern is manifested everywhere.

The information received by the entrepreneur has maximum value for him and he readily pays for it if he can use it directly in the process of extracting material benefits. Everything else is already lyrics. Any information that is not directly related to the extraction of benefits, as a rule, is funded on a leftover basis. True, there are special technologies for artificially increasing the value of information, thanks to which it is possible to force an individual to actively consume the information offered to him. Most of these technologies are well described and information about them is publicly available. However, this information is not regarded by people as valuable, since it does not provide material benefits “here and now”. Thus, a person is almost unprotected from social programming, which is more a pattern than some kind of annoying misunderstanding. An exception is made by people with a pronounced ability to create a stable microcosm around them, as a rule, they are extremely talented, large-scale and productive people (entrepreneurs, scientists, artists).

If a person wants to be deceived, it is unlikely that arguments about the need to counteract deception will be able to convince him. Psychologists talk a lot about the irrationality of human behavior and cannot find an explanation for this phenomenon. In general, it turns out that knowledge of the laws does not mean that material benefit will be derived from them. The thing is that a person is not capable of simultaneously ensuring his material gain and being at the level of abstraction from which he can control himself, rationally evaluate his own behavior. Most likely, in the future, biorobots and cyberbiological formations will have this ability. Man is destined to fully taste the merits and demerits of his own irrationality without any chance to overcome it.

People constantly demonstrate the irrationality of their own behavior, which some even call stupidity, and no one is going to learn the proper lessons from this. The philosopher will explain this behavior from the standpoint of dialectics, trying to calm himself and others, they say, everything is happening quite naturally. It seems that an individual individual only has to act as we are programmed, i.e. do deliberately irrational things with an intuitive awareness of the entire inexpediency of this activity.

However, a group of individuals who have united to achieve a certain goal in a system no longer behave in this way. To control and rationalize their purposeful activities, a team of people is forced to use special tools, the most important of which is ...

end of fragment ...

When someone gave us the information we need at the moment and saved us from unnecessary time expenditures, how do we usually treat him?

Let's do some thought experiments in this article.

(listen to the podcast if your eyes are tired or just too lazy to read)

The building is engulfed in flames, and this is my first time in it. Having lost my way along endless corridors, flights of stairs and passages, I have lost my bearings, I have no idea where the exit is and I feel myself in a maze. Panic is already approaching. But then a man appears out of the smoke, who comes up and says that you need to go this way and there will be a way out. Was it like a savior, Jesus? Or did the dude just share some valuable information?

I used to peel an onion and an egg for a very long time, but here they told me how you can do it quickly:

I didn't really need this knowledge in everyday life, but let's say I became a cook and at work every day I need to peel a lot of onions and eggs for salads. At first, I spent so much time on it that I barely had a minute to sit down and have a cup of coffee. And then I remembered how to do it quickly!

Now I am so grateful to those people who discovered a quick way and shared information that I am ready to kiss them! At work, now I have enough time to clean all the products without straining, prepare every dish on the menu with pleasure and without haste, drink my coffee and still have time to go to the stall for cookies! The work is done for pleasure, without fuss and I became a happier person))

Or, for example, I am healthy, but somehow I learned that cancer at the last stage can be cured. For me, this information is not as important as for patients with this terrible disease. In the world, millions of people suffer from the disease, many children and adults die every day in terrible agony. I don’t do anything for them, I just know that they can be helped, but I haven’t tested it myself.

But a person close to me was offended and angry with himself for a long time and as a result he fell ill. He is looking for a way to recover, asks everyone for help, is completely open and ready for a miracle, he catches any information from the outside world, but there is still no necessary information. He grabs at every opportunity like a straw, but I do not even suspect that he is sick - the usual thing, he pretends, hides and does not want to upset me. This often happens according to the law of meanness, when it is not necessary - information in bulk, but as it becomes necessary, so "in the afternoon with fire."

What does he owe me? Life? Most likely, he will think so. But I didn’t do anything, didn’t prescribe treatment, didn’t perform therapy, and indeed I’m not a doctor, I just gave him a link to the information, that's all. He was treated himself, on his own initiative followed all the instructions, showed his will to heal, and now he is healthy and happy.

But am I happy knowing that thanks to accidentally acquired knowledge, my friend was cured? Yes, of course, but not so much when compared with the size of his joy.

Another Long Term Survival Experiment

There are people who advise everyone on how to make a lot of money. This is their business, they, as they say, "make money out of money", "out of thin air." They are real troublemakers: they beckon, insist, rush, create tension with countdown timers and a limited offer of their information products and intellectual property. They think they are helping people by providing (in their opinion) information they need for money.

But is everything logical here?

It seems to me that something is out of place.

Businessmen say that “being poor is bad, ugly, pitiful and generally sucks”, that “there is a psychology of poverty in accordance with which a person does not allow himself to be rich because of the belief that no one likes the rich”, that “all social problems from poverty and only poverty is the cause of all problems. "

I would very much like to object to this, that if rich people had not seized everything in their own hands, would not have taken all the riches of the world for themselves, would not have created such a dissonance in the distribution of resources, when the minority has everything, and the majority has nothing, and if it had not been fenced off by armies , policemen and laws from the poor, then there would be no problem of poverty. Everything would be enough for everyone in abundance, tension would not exist and then there would be no need to become a competitive businessman, get different education of the same type and make money on cunning and deceiving a fortune. Everyone would do what he likes and would be happy, because there would be no fuss, competition, tension and rush.

The logic here is very simple:

the problem is not poverty at all, but the overwhelming greed and selfishness of some unconscious people.

By creating tension and instilling the toxic belief that you are not good the way you are if you don't make thousands of dollars a day. In this case, you must subject yourself to suffering, self-destruction and self-torture. You are not worthy, you are a man of the lowest order, a nonentity.

It is very humiliating for a person to be a product for sale. With this artificial tension, businessmen inspire the idea that there are people who, they say, know how to make money (basically, this definition means “sell”, and “sell” means “sell”, and “sell” means “deceive »), But there are those who do not have the necessary skills, experience, and knowledge of the seller.

Only by acquiring the necessary knowledge and breaking the code of the OSB (optimal sales system), you can cleverly wishful thinking, be an illusionist and earn your hard-earned millions. This is typical of all successful businesses.

But why is this information so destructive to humans? Why, thanks to vanity, struggle and deceit, creates a huge tension, which very soon results in illness, cancer, and early death?

It's just that everything in society is turned upside down. Rough, strong, stiff, tense - that which is more characteristic of death is considered valuable, and flexible, mobile, relaxed - that which is characteristic of life is considered a dummy. Young flexible trees bend to the ground, and old ones are uprooted by a hurricane.

Thus, any artificially created tension is initially against nature.

Yes, there are people who, no matter what they do, create value, and there are those who, no matter how hard they try, do only byaka - even while creating, they actually only destroy. Almost all businessmen are such destroyers. Through their unconscious activity, they create class divisions, poverty and wars in the long term.

I am, of course, also partly an information businessman. I listened to them for a long time and thought there was truth in these words, but the further I listened, the more I realized that it was just deception and dirt and it was impossible to find a diamond in it, since more than one generation of businessmen had dug their noses through this dirt and so there was nothing in it. and did not find it. Yes, businessmen have material wealth, but there is no happiness. The only plus is that they now know that wealth does not mean happiness, but it means suffering from the fear of losing wealth.

I refocused my business. Now my business is to go to the center of myself and help those who wish to come to themselves. I think this is the only place where you can find your happiness.

In conditions of wild information overload, it becomes a vital condition to be able to clearly define what information is valuable and what is not.

So I guess that

Information "How to make big money"- false value.

Information "How to help yourself to be happy, how to help other people to be happy"- value.

If you ask the rich if they are happy, they will lie that they are happy, but in reality they are not. They are disappointed because the riches did not give them what they were looking for. Few admit this, as no one likes to look stupid. This is really very stupid - they beat their ass, tensed, but turned out to be fools. Therefore, they want everyone else to become the same fool, so that one does not look so stupid. A fool among fools is no longer so insulting. So they beckon to them.

This is a recurring story about Alexander the Great, who, having conquered the whole World, locked himself in his office and began to cry, as he was thrown back to himself, everything that he conquered turned out to be an empty thing, it was just great stupidity. No riches of the World are able to fill the inner emptiness of a person. They only distract for a while from the important, from oneself.

Practice shows that a non-ambitious non-attachment person can easily be much happier, since a life based on possession is less happy than a life based on creation. Happiness has nothing to do with wealth at all, it has to do with wealth and presence.

And among the rich, according to statistics, the number of suicides is much higher. These facts speak for themselves.

Here is Osho. He had a hundred Rolls Royces and private jets, but he didn't earn them by hard work, business or deception - he did nothing at all for this, he celebrated life and meditated. They were given to him by the rich, disappointed in their wealth, whom Osho simply taught to be happy, to live consciously. He shared valuable information with them.

Or Arthur Sita. A successful businessman left a business to partners when he realized that money, position and connections would not give him what he really needed in life, would not give him the happiness of a total experience of the present moment.

Or carbon monoxide German Etgar Tolle, or many more awakened our contemporaries.

These Buddhas they are not rich on the outside, but infinitely rich on the inside, and no one can ever take this wealth from them in any situation. If you have total awareness in the moment now, then it is simply impossible to lose this grace.

If anyone remembers, then Buddha himself was a prince and abandoned the whole kingdom in favor of being a conscious beggar - here and now to be who you are.

What is evidenced by such irrational, uneconomical and categorically unacceptable business actions of far from stupid people? The first people of humanity, those who are called gods and to whom they usually pray. Perhaps they realized that everything material is empty and false goals, chasing them in tension, you miss a priceless moment of the totality of the bliss of life?

Probably, you can live with wealth, the main thing is completely and completely not to depend on it, not to get attached to the mind to trinkets, which you can’t take with you to the grave and on the further journey of the soul.

In one parable, the Buddha the traveler came to a king and stayed with him, enjoying all the privileges for so long that the king had doubts about the Buddha's authenticity. Before the king had time to ask the question that tormented him, the Buddha outstripped him and said: “I see your question and today I will leave you. Please accompany me to the borders of your kingdom. "

For the king, this was a surprise, he agreed and together they galloped to the border. Buddha gave the king a horse and already wanted to go, but the king, seeing such a thing, began to apologize for his doubts and pray to Buddha to stay, said how good he was with him, that he could live in a palace even until his death and not deny himself anything that he regrets his insecurity and now he has learned his lesson.

To this, Buddha replied that if he stays, then after a while the king will again have doubts, so it would be better if he still leaves. And the king, if he wants, can go with him.

The king replied: "I cannot, I am too attached to my kingdom." On this they parted, and the king wept (Apparently, like Alexander the Great).

Harmful information- withdrawing from oneself, creating internal tension, inconsistency of the real itself with the desired one (the image created by the mind, the ideal); this is any knowledge about external projections, where there is tension, complication, such as different laws, rules, duties, checks, balances, etc. This includes politics, religion, economics, jurisprudence, psychology, competitive business, in short, everything that carries basically inequality and division at all levels: poverty versus wealth, leadership versus obedience, knowledge versus ignorance, etc.

Valuable information- simplifying, integrating, uniting, helping to find the way to one's true self and become whole, single, total, conscious in the present moment, except for which there is nothing else throughout a person's life.

This question is very controversial, therefore, the author's opinion is presented in the article solely with the aim of encouraging readers to independently search for their answers.

If, after reading the article, you have a desire to start an independent search, then be active, share the article with friends and family on social networks, leave your comments and fearlessly spread your thoughts, testing them for strength.

Thank you for attention!

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