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Actual problems modern electronics and nanoelectronics Discipline for master's training in the direction
Lesson 1 () Introduction Characteristics professional activity Master in the field of training Structure and content of the discipline
The scope of the discipline and types educational work Semester: 11 Discipline: Actual problems of modern electronics and nanoelectronics Direction of training: (2 people) Total workload of the discipline in credit units (CU) - 4 Lectures: - 9 hours Workshops: - 36 hours Laboratory exercises: - Extracurricular IWS: - 63 hours Type of certification: exam
Introduction Characteristics of the professional activity of a master in the direction of training "Radio Engineering"
PLO in the direction of Graduate in the direction of training "Radio Engineering" with the qualification (degree) "Master" in accordance with the tasks of professional activity and the goals of the main educational program must have the following general cultural competences (GC): the ability to self-study new research methods, to change the scientific and scientific-production profile of their professional activities (OK-2); the ability to use in practice the skills and abilities in the organization of research and design work, in team management (OK-4);
OOP in the direction (continued) The graduate must also have the following professional competencies (PC): general professional: the ability to understand the main problems in their subject area, choose methods and means of solving them (PC 3); By type of activity: design and engineering activity: the ability to analyze the state of a scientific and technical problem by selecting, studying and analyzing literary and patent sources (PC 7);
OOP in the direction (continued) research activities: readiness to prepare reviews and reports on the results of ongoing research, prepare scientific publications and applications for inventions, develop recommendations on practical use the results obtained (PC 20); organizational and managerial activities: the ability to develop plans and programs for innovative activities in the unit (PC 25).
Internet sites 1. - site of FGU GNII ITT "Informika"; - Federal Internet portal "Nanotechnology and nanomaterials"; - site "Normative documents"; - site “Metrology. Metrological support of production "; - site of the nanotechnology community; 6.www. quality21.ru - site "Quality XXI century"; www. quality21.ru 7. - site of the National Instruments company; - site of the journal of the Siberian Federal University site of the journal "Nano- and microsystem technology" site of the Institute for Problems of Microelectronics Technology and High-Purity Materials of the Russian Academy of Sciences
Standards GOST RV GOST RV System of product development and launching into production. Military equipment. Quality management systems. General requirements GOST RV System for the development and launching of products. Military equipment. Stages of the life cycle of products and materials GOST RV 0015–101–2010 System of product development and launching into production. Military equipment. Tactical and technical (technical) task for the implementation of scientific research works GOST RV –2001 System of product development and launching into production. Military equipment. The procedure for performing research work and their component parts... Key points .......
GOST RV standard
GOST RV
GOST RV SRPP VT. Quality management systems. General requirements ROSSTANDART (Order 6-st from) adopted the state military standard of the Russian Federation GOST RV instead of GOST RV (valid from).
GOST RV standard
ISO 9001: 2008 Quality Management Systems. Requirements 7.3 Design and development Design and development planning The organization shall plan and control design and development. During design and development planning, the organization shall establish: a) design and development stages; b) conducting analysis, verification and validation appropriate to each stage of design and development; c) design and development responsibility and authority.
CONSUMER REQUIREMENTS Continuous improvement of the QMS Model of the QMS based on the process approach Measurement, analysis, improvement 7. Life cycle processes Management responsibility CONSUMER SATISFACTION (4.2,4.9,4.10) (4.3) (4.4) (4.6) (4.7,4.8,4.9,4.10, 4.12 , 4.15,4.19) (4.13) (4.2) (4.2,4.5) (4.2) (4.5) (4.16) (4.1) (4.1,4.18) (4.1,4.9) (4.9) (4.1,4.2) (4.3) ( 4.1) (4.1,4.2) (4.1) (4.2) (4.10,4.17,4.20) (4.9,4.10,4.17,4.20) (4.13) (4.14,4.20) (4.1,4.14) Product Output Input Value-adding activity (value ) Information flow 6 Resource management 4.QMS ISO 9001: 2008 ISO 9001: 1994
Standards GOST R (Electromagnetic compatibility of technical equipment) GOST R Technical means radio communications. Part 1. General technical requirements and test methods GOST R Technical means of radio communication. Part 2. Particular requirements for equipment paging systems communication GOST R Technical means of radio communication. Part 3. Particular requirements for short-range devices operating at frequencies from 9 kHz to 40 GHz …… GOST R Technical means of radio communication. Part 6. Particular requirements for digital advanced equipment wireless(DECT) GOST R Technical means of radio communication. Part 7. Particular requirements for mobile and portable radio equipment and ancillary equipment of digital systems cellular(GSM and DCS) ……
Periodicals (publishing house "Radiotekhnika") Journals: Achievements of modern radio electronics; Satellite systems communications and broadcasting; Nanotechnology: development, application of the XXI century; Nanomaterials and nanostructures XXI century; Vacuum, plasma and solid state electronics
Automated system ASONIKA for modeling physical processes in radio electronic means taking into account external influences The monograph presents the works of the Scientific School of Modeling, Information Technologies and Automated Systems (NSH MITAS) of Professor A.S. Shalumov and the Scientific School "ASONIKA" Professor Kofanov Yu.N.
Acousto-optical processors of the spectral type The acousto-optical processors of the spectral type, which are a promising class of devices, are considered. functional electronics empowering modern means signal processing. Original structures of acousto-optical spectrum analyzers with spatial and temporal integration are proposed, planar acousto-optical spectrum analyzers and acousto-optical spectrometers are described.
Technology RFID Technology radio frequency identification uses the energy of the electromagnetic field to read and write information on small device- RFID - tag. Information on it can be rewritten and supplemented. RFID memory - tags can contain the following information: unique an identification number information about the object
Information about RFID - system According to the reading range, RFID systems can be subdivided into systems: near identification (reading is performed at a distance of up to 20 cm); medium range identification (from 20 cm to 5 m); long distance identification (5 m to 100 m) Most RFID tags are in two parts. The first integrated circuit (IC) for storing and processing information, modulating and demodulating a radio frequency (RF) signal and some other functions. Second antenna for receiving and transmitting signals.
Methods for recording information on tags The method for recording information depends on design features labels. Depending on this, the following types of labels are distinguished: - RO-labels (Read Only) work only for reading information. The data required for storage is entered into the memory of the tags by the manufacturer and cannot be changed or deleted during operation. - WORM (Write Once Read Many) tags for write once and multiple reading of information. They come from the manufacturer without any user data in the memory device. The necessary information recorded by the user himself, but only once. If you need to change the data, you will need a new label. - R / W-marks (Read / Write) of multiple writing and multiple reading of information.
Study assignment To study the requirements of the Federal State Educational Standard and the content of the PLO in the direction of "Radio Engineering" (master's degree); Examine the content of the article "Nanoelectronics - the basis information systems XXI century "; Get acquainted with the content of the electronic educational and methodological complex in discipline. Note: educational materials posted on the NovSU portal (study materials> Isaev Vladimir Alexandrovich> Actual problems of modern electronics and nanoelectronics> ...) Isaev Vladimir Alexandrovich> Actual problems of modern electronics and nanoelectronics> ...) "> 
References 1. Actual problems of modern electronics and nanoelectronics: training program disciplines / V. A. Yuzova, G. N. Shelovanova. - Krasnoyarsk: IPK SFU, Actual problems of modern electronics and nanoelectronics: a course of lectures / G. N. Shelovanova. - Krasnoyarsk: IPK SFU, Borisenko V.E. Nanoelectronics - the basis of information systems of the XXI century // Soros Educational Journal, 1997, 5, p. teaching aid/ A.I. Bobrov, A.V. Pirogov, N.O. Krivulin, D.A. Pavlov; edited by D.A. Pavlova. - Nizhny Novgorod: Nizhny Novgorod State University, p.
References (continued) 5. GOST R Technical means of radio communication. Part 6. Particular requirements for digital advanced wireless communication equipment (DECT) 6. GOST R Technical means of radio communication. Part 7. Particular requirements for mobile and portable radio equipment and auxiliary equipment for digital cellular communication systems (GSM and DCS) 7. Automated system ASONIKA for modeling physical processes in radio-electronic means taking into account external influences / Ed. A.S. Shalumova. - M: Publishing house "Radiotekhnika", - 424 p.
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Problems, Prospects and Import Substitution
Discussion current situation and the prospects of the contract electronics market in Russia took place at the conference "Contract manufacturing of electronics in Russia" within the framework of the exhibition "Expoelectronics", which was held at Crocus Expo from March 24 to 26.
The seminar was organized by the Russian office of the Jabil company, and a significant part concerned the discussion of the work and organization of production processes within the company. However, a significant part of the conference was devoted to the state of the industry as a whole and the challenges it faces. Let's try to dwell on this point in more detail.
Contract Manufacturing: Russian Features
The main thing for modern contract manufacturing is strict optimization of all costs. To be competitive and efficient in today's market, a manufacturer has to use any available ways savings, literally make sure that not a single penny is wasted. After all, even penny losses, multiplied by large volumes typical for contract production, result in impressive figures. Therefore, you need to be ready to optimize everything: the technologies used, production processes, salaries. Well, appetites for profit should also be tempered.
According to Semyon Lukachev (director of PC Altonika LLC), in contract manufacturing, the price consists of three main components:
- Logistics
- Component cost
- Cost of work
The rest of the components, as noted in the answers to the questions by Semyon Lukachev, are of a secondary nature. It will be possible to think about their optimization when the main issues in three main areas are resolved.
Interestingly, Sergey Zorin, director of business development at Jabil, also addressed the issue of cost components in his speech.
Here the ratio is slightly different from the approximate estimate of Semyon Lukachev, but the information from Sergey Zorin's slide covers the production of electronics as a whole, that is, a noticeably broader process.
The cost of work in the final price of the product, as a rule, is low and amounts to about 10-15%, but it is still not worth placing contract production in large cities: due to high cost rent, labor and other resources, total costs will be too high to maintain competitiveness. It is better to locate contract manufacturing in small towns and regions, where rental rates and salaries not too high.
Thus, the most significant impact on contract manufacturing in Russia, i.e. on the price of the final product, is exerted by logistics and the cost of components.
Logistics
Parts and components are mainly shipped from Chinese factories, that is, they are imported. And in matters of import to the Russian Federation, there are several "delicate points".
Firstly, in Russia there are companies that have been operating on the market since the 90s and have kept the same work pattern: they carry them “by weight”. When using gray schemes, overhead costs for the delivery of components from China are about 15%, while with white schemes - about 35%, a significant share of which is VAT. Therefore, a legal supplier can achieve at least roughly comparable prices only on condition of relatively large volumes of supplies, which are often unprofitable due to the too small size of the Russian market.
In general, a small market size in many cases acts as an independent negative factor: manufacturers are forced to work with small volumes of component supplies, in which the logistics overhead costs are large per unit of product, which negatively affects the cost of the final product and its competitiveness in the market.
Component cost and complexity
However, even with the very selection of parts and components in China, it is not so simple.
Firstly, the Chinese do not like to share detailed specifications and documentation for equipment and components. Sometimes you have to literally gnaw the documentation with your teeth. Specifications may be incomplete, incorrect, or even incorrect. All this greatly complicates the adaptation process and production, since it is very difficult to understand what works and how.
Secondly, even if the documentation is there, you always need to be prepared for the need for a redesign. Chinese use a large number of components, for example, controllers that are available only on the domestic market - they even have only hieroglyphs for marking. Information about such components is almost impossible to find, and without this it is impossible to understand what the same controller is doing at all. The parts themselves are difficult to find even on the domestic market, and besides, they are too expensive to ship here due to the narrow niche and small volumes.
Thirdly, it is difficult to find the right balance between price and quality of such parts. The Chinese in the domestic market can somehow find the right balance, when the chip is already quite cheap, but still more or less works and has an acceptable percentage of defects. But only the Chinese who are on the spot can do this. In Russia, however, one has to choose components with a more stable quality, but a higher price.
Other difficulties
But besides the objective ones, there are also subjective difficulties associated with the "peculiarities of doing business" in Russia.
Semyon Lukachev separately noted: Russian market doesn't really want to move. Many companies already have a stable pool of customers, thanks to which they provide themselves with a certain profitability, and are not at all eager to get involved in other low-profit projects, where they will have to carefully calculate the risks and squeeze the maximum out of production and personnel. There are a few exceptions, though, where leaders are willing to take on a project.
The situation is approximately the same with customers: in principle, they exist and could work with Russian manufacturers on a mutually beneficial basis. But they are used to ordering everything in China, which no longer looks like a “cheap alternative”, and they are also not particularly chasing optimization and efficiency gains.
However, this very direction - the reorientation of Russian manufacturers and customers towards each other - has a very great potential. It's just that to implement it, you need to work hard, you need a desire to expand and master new projects, you need passion. And more often than not, this is not, everyone wants a stable, unhurried work. But it is precisely the development of mass serial production that will ensure stability and work “on the reverse”, and will attract companies that are now working with the Chinese that are engaged in final assembly.
The current situation in the market of contract manufacturing of electronics in the world
Sergey Zorin, now the development director of Jabil, and recently the owner of his own electronics production in the Moscow region, spoke about global trends.
The total volume of the world electronics market today is about 1.3 trillion. dollars, contract manufacturing is 35-40%. The main growth driver for the entire segment is consumer electronics, where the main research and production potential is concentrated (the picture is very different in Russia). And already from it, technologies then fall into other related industries.
The two most actively developing areas consumer electronics is wearable electronics and controls smart home... In principle, automotive electronics is also developing, but development there is largely constrained by very high safety requirements, since the price of a mistake can cost people their lives. Therefore, the assessment and verification of security takes a lot of time and effort in this area.
The second trend is that the already existing system is gradually being destroyed, in which China was the only and universal production base for the whole world, from where products were delivered to different countries... Now production is slowly shifting to the markets of the customer and the end consumer. Price competition is strongly felt.
In general, the main factors of market development are as follows:
All manufacturers are divided into four large groups:
For global electronics manufacturing, the same law applies as for many other industries: "20% of the largest companies hold 80% of the market, and the remaining 80% of small businesses hold 20% of the market." Even slightly violated in favor large companies.
Producers large and small have their own strengths and weaknesses. It is quite obvious that the production efficiency of large companies is higher. Here's an approximate ratio:
Finally, it is quite predictable that the main contract manufacturing facilities are located in Asia, and the trend towards the efforts of this region will continue in the near future.
If we come closer to Russia, it should be noted that the contract manufacturing of electronics in Russia is small even in comparison with other European countries.
As you can see, Russia is in 27th place. To my surprise, Hungary is in first place by a large margin, and Bulgaria is in second.
On the other hand, if we look at production costs, including the cost of labor, Russia today does not look like an outsider.
While China is noticeably gaining in the cost of operators' labor (i.e., relatively unskilled employees), then Russia is much more profitable in terms of the cost of engineering personnel.
The state of the market for contract manufacturing of electronics in Russia
Moving on to the state of the Russian market, let's start with a few numbers. The total volume of the electronics market in Russia is $ 34 billion. Electronics production - $ 6 billion (18%), contract manufacturing - $ 710 million (i.e., only 2% of the total market volume).
Market in numbers: data and forecasts
The contract manufacturing market is growing in value, but it is interesting to note that the growth of production itself is noticeably lower than the growth of the market as a whole. "Extra" growth is formed due to additional services, equipment, etc. This was mentioned in the speech of Ivan Pokrovsky, General Director of the Information and Analytical Agency of the Center for Modern Electronics.
This section contains slides and from his report.
According to the Center for Modern Electronics, the volume of the contract manufacturing market is about $ 250 million (which differs from the above figures due to a different research base). This figure includes production abroad on request Russian companies, contract manufacturing in Russia for Russian companies and contract manufacturing in Russia for foreign companies.
The volume of the market and its growth are shown in the diagram more clearly.
It is interesting that, despite a rather serious failure in 2008-2009, the market recovered quite quickly to its previous level. However, after that, its growth began to slow down rapidly.
Ivan also presented a growth forecast for 2015.
And a chart with a forecast up to 2018:
By 2018, the total market size should be about $ 382 million, and the growth rate will decrease to 20%. However, it’s probably not worth paying attention to growth rates in general. Special attention: firstly, the high numbers are explained by the recovery after the crisis, and secondly, the base is too low to draw any conclusions. And finally, this is the forecast.
Growth trends. Import substitution factor
A comprehensive chart shows the main drivers of industry growth.
The industry is growing in many ways not quantitatively, but qualitatively: manufacturers provide complex services, helping customers to solve additional problems.
Accordingly, the development of a network of contract manufacturing facilities, united unified system management and logistics service. Improving the efficiency of investments in the management system, logistics and marketing. Plus the development of the ODM direction - the production of standard products self-developed under the brand name of the customer. This makes it possible to quickly realize the potential of import substitution.
How the Russian market works: industries, applicability, penetration
So, now let's see what the Russian market for contract electronics manufacturing consists of. For a start - all electronics production in Russia, broken down by industry. Diagram from Sergey Zorin's speech (here it comes about to all production):
And from the speech of Ivan Pokrovsky (here it is taken into account contractual production):
Interesting to compare the difference, isn't it?
Sergey Zorin noted important feature Russian market: a significant part of electronics production is closed to the military industry and products for government agencies, while these manufacturers are not present on the open market, and their activities have practically no effect on the industry. This is unfortunate, since it largely hinders the development of the market as a whole.
Russian manufacturers
It's funny, but despite the above considerations, Moscow and St. Petersburg today occupy leading positions in the production of electronics.
However, the situation may change depending on whether the companies are taken into account at the location of the head office or the factories themselves.
And so, according to the version of the "Center for Modern Electronics" there is a list of leading manufacturers in Russia. By sales volume:
And in terms of production volumes:
Production of printed circuit boards
I talked about the production of printed circuit boards general manager company "Rezonit", Andrey Kucheryavy. Honestly saying that this is the main activity of his company, and contract manufacturing is secondary. However, in the speech there were many interesting information about the market as a whole.
The volume of which this speaker also assessed as "modest".
At the same time, for Russia, the entire PCB market is indicated, if we take the actual production, then this is somewhere around 25% of 300 million (i.e., about $ 80 million), and such a share on the graph will not be noticeable at all.
In figures, the market volume is somewhere around 12-13 million dm2 per month (production is a quarter of this figure).
On the one hand, the crisis has noticeably cut down on the Russian market. At the end of 2014, the supply of electronic components increased significantly, as the enterprises made stocks. So now we can expect a failure in both supply and production. On the other hand, the devaluation of the ruble has significantly increased the competitiveness of our enterprises, due to which production in Russia now looks more preferable in many situations than even in China. For example, Latvia used to look very good due to its low wages, with salaries of 300-400 euros. Nowadays, the enterprises there have largely lost their attractiveness. As for the rise in prices within the country, for the company's plant in Klin (which is engaged in serial production), when the ruble fell twice, the cost price increased by about a quarter.
First of all, mass orders fall during the crisis. This market fell already in September 2014, and in 2014 as a whole, the volume of orders in China fell by a quarter. In 2015, the decline continued and now the decline has amounted to somewhere else 10%. Thus, the overall drop in the market today is about a third.
Also, according to the director of "Rezonit", from the experience of past crises, we can conclude that the loading of contract production feels the crisis in 4-5 months. At the same time, the segment for orders and production of small-scale prototypes has grown, largely due to the flow of orders from China. After the fall of the ruble, the cost of fulfilling orders at Chinese factories has increased dramatically, and now Russian factories represent an interesting alternative, especially for small-scale production. The fact is that in China they do not like small orders, since there is a lot of fiddling with them. Therefore, the Chinese manufacturing enterprises As a rule, in addition to basic prices, they also include a one-time payment for "preparation for production", which in many cases can be quite high. This way they cut out small-scale customers to focus on larger orders. This feature allows Russian enterprises to occupy a niche of development, fine-tuning and production of small batches of electronic boards.
The decrease in the value of the ruble has greatly changed the balance of power in the market, so a significant volume of orders began to flow from China to Russia. Moreover, the number of such orders and the total volume are not so small: since the end of last year, production facilities have been well loaded. At some point, there was even a danger that fiberglass would run out in Russia. However, serial production, especially for complex orders, is also gradually moving to Russia. Russian enterprises in Lately actively invested in technology, and now many orders that previously went to China or even Japan, because local manufacturers could not fulfill them, remain in Russia.
A minute of new technologies: “In Klin, they began to make multilayer boards, hybrid boards, introduced new topcoats, will produce boards with impedance control in their own production. By autumn, we will switch to new technological standards, there will be 100 microns in all layers and an area of 0.2-0.4. we master a lot of new technologies. Next year we will launch flexible and flexible-rigid ones, reduce the thickness and increase the number of layers to 20, etc. "
By the way, here, too, the speaker noted that too small a market size hinders the development of the industry. For example, although significant investments are often made in new technologies and equipment, as a result, these equipment and technologies remain unclaimed, because they can be effectively used only with large production volumes, and there is simply no such volume of orders. For example, in a new machine, you need to pour 500 liters of solder for operation and keep it warm, which when current state market is pointless.
State. Help or harm?
On this issue, the assessments were divided, but they were all in the "red zone". The state does not need the production of electronics - in best case... The market is weak, it is not yet able to promote itself, and officials do not want to do this. As a result, the market is now in a generally stupid situation: large retailers have lobbied for a reduction in import customs duties on electronics, and duties on electronic components stayed on the old one, high level... This is such discrimination domestic manufacturer that you just don't give a damn about. Help came from where they did not expect: the actively abused entry into the WTO. Thanks to a plan to reduce import duties, duties on electronic components are to be reduced or eliminated from September 2015, after which the industry could become more profitable.
In Russia, there is also no second growth driver for any market - government orders. More precisely, it exists, and it is very significant. But, as industry representatives say, this area is largely self-contained: enterprises tied to government orders produce something for the state, have good profitability for themselves and do not want to risk money on the open market at all.
For the second year I have been teaching the discipline: "Electronics and microprocessor technology." We discuss industry problems with students in the classroom. In contrast to the topics studied: physical processes in semiconductors, properties p-n junction and the characteristics of the transistor, the problem of domestic microelectronics is well understood by young people. The guys proudly watch videos showing the operation of the S-400 Triumph anti-aircraft missile system, which is controlled by domestic microelectronic developments. The radar system is controlled by central processing unit"Elbrus" and the result of hitting a target completely depends on a microcircuit measuring 3 by 4 cm. This contributes to the development of interest in the subject.
Today, import substitution in the field of microelectronics affects national security. It seems to me that the country's leadership, asserting in the 90s that its own electronics are not needed, that it can be purchased abroad, perfectly understood what they were talking about. It was in this area that the first blow of the shock reforms fell. The electronics industry was one of the first to be destroyed. If in the Soviet Union from 1965 to 1991 there was the Ministry of the Electronic Industry of the USSR, for which many research institutes and design bureaus worked and the development of electronics was decided at the state level, today we hear only pitiful talk about innovations. The work of Soviet scientists and engineers at the turn of 1965-1985 made it possible to bring the USSR to the forefront of the world in this area. The system of sectoral educational institutions trained personnel for the industry, which no one needed in the 90s.
As an educator, I find it very difficult to restore the system of industry education in the field of electronics. When passing the exam in Electronics, many young people do not answer the question about the structure of the atom, although they are required to know how electronic devices work. This restoration should begin, first of all, with a change in the state policy in the field of education. At the turn of the 90s and 2000s, almost all higher and middle schools were withdrawn from line ministries. Market laws dictate completely different relationships between enterprises and educational organizations. As a result, the budgets of universities and colleges emaciated, and many departments were closed or worked idle, releasing not designers, but managers or salespeople.
I believe that it is necessary to determine the spheres of the country's life, in which not market laws, but completely different laws should operate: education, health care, culture, etc. Then return the system of sectoral educational organizations to the relevant ministries. There is an acute lack of strategic certainty within individual industries. Efficiency enhancement as such, which is read in many of these supposedly development strategies, cannot be the goal. It is strategic certainty that can revive both educational organizations and the industry. A clearly formulated goal will allow you to formulate requirements for the graduate. And here it is very important to avoid dehumanization. vocational education because today economic feasibility tends to exclude all basic subjects as not cost-effective, leaving applied skills. Development professional qualities and the spirituality of the specialist must be linked.
“If we take as a unit the level of knowledge at which our pupils will be in the year of obtaining a profession, then during their working life each of them will have to add five or six more units to their spiritual wealth - otherwise they will lag behind life and will not be able to work successfully” ...
One of the main problems facing electronics is associated with the requirement to increase the amount of processed information by computing and control electronic systems while reducing their size and energy consumption.
This problem is solved by:
creation of semiconductor integrated circuits providing switching time up to 10 -11 sec;
increasing the degree of integration on one crystal to a million or more transistors less than 1-2 microns in size based on the use of nanotechnology and, in the future, molecular electronics;
use in integrated circuits of optical communication devices and optoelectronic converters, superconductors;
development of storage devices with a capacity of several gigabytes on a single chip;
the use of laser and electron beam switching;
expanding the functionality of integrated circuits (for example, the transition from a microprocessor to a mini-computer on a single chip);
transition from two-dimensional (planar) technology of integrated circuits to three-dimensional (volumetric) and the use of a combination of various properties of a solid in one device;
development and implementation of the principles and means of stereoscopic television, which is more informative than conventional television;
creation electronic devices operating in the range of millimeter and submillimeter waves, for broadband (more efficient) systems transmission of information, as well as devices for optical communication lines;
development of high-power, high-efficiency, microwave devices and lasers for energetic action on matter and directional energy transfer (for example, from space).
One of the trends in the development of electronics is the penetration of its methods and means into biology (for studying the cells and structure of a living organism and influencing it) and medicine (for diagnostics, therapy, surgery).
2. Elements of electronic circuits
Modern electronic circuits contain a large number of functional components as nonlinear elements based on the use of the properties of semiconductor materials.
Semiconductor materials (germanium, silicon) by their electrical resistivity ρ take place between conductors and dielectrics ( ρ =10 -3 …10 8 Ohm-cm). The different values of conductivity in metals, semiconductors and dielectrics are due to the different amount of energy that must be spent in order to free the valence electron from bonds with atoms located at the sites of the crystal lattice. Moreover, the conductivity of semiconductors largely depends on the presence of impurities and temperature.
Semiconductors contain two types of mobile charge carriers: negative electrons and positive holes.
Pure (intrinsic) semiconductors are practically not used in semiconductor devices, since they have low conductivity and do not provide one-sided conductivity. Mobile charge carriers in their own semiconductors usually arise as a result of thermal generation. The so-called impurity semiconductors, in which, depending on the type of impurity introduced, either electron or hole conductivity predominates, have received technical application. Depending on the type of conductivity (main charge carriers), semiconductors are subdivided into semiconductors R-type (hole type) and n-type (electronic type). The concentration of the majority carriers is determined by the concentration of the impurity and is practically independent of temperature, since already at room temperature all impurity atoms are ionized, and the number of majority carriers arising due to the generation of electron-hole pairs is negligible compared to the total number of majority carriers. At the same time, the concentration of minority carriers is low and strongly depends on temperature, increasing by a factor of 2–3 with an increase in temperature for every 10 ° C.
The considered electronic devices are shown in Fig. 2.1.
Rice. 2.1. Classification of electronic semiconductor devices
