Data is a collection of information that is recorded on any medium - paper, disk, film. This information must be in a form suitable for storage, transmission and processing. Further transformation of the data provides information. Thus, information can be called the result of data analysis and transformation. The database stores various data, and the control system can issue the required information at a specific request. For example, you can find out from the school database which of the students lives on a certain street or who has not received a bad grade during the year, etc. Data is turned into information when they are interested. It can be argued that information is data used.
The word "information" comes from the Latin informatio, "information, presentation, explanation." Information is also called information about objects, environmental phenomena, their properties, which reduce the degree of uncertainty, incompleteness of knowledge. As a result of the exchange of information, a more complete understanding of the subject is formed, the level of awareness increases.
Information does not exist in isolation, by itself. There is always a source that produces it and that perceives it. Any object - man, computer, animal, plant - acts as a source or receiver. Information is always intended for a specific object.
A person receives information from a variety of sources - when reading, listening to the radio, watching TV, when he touches an object, tastes food. Different people can perceive the same information in different ways.
Depending on the scope of use, there is scientific, technical, economic and other types of information. This is the most powerful means of influencing and on society as a whole. According to the well-known expression, whoever possesses the most information on any issue, he owns the world, that is, is in an advantageous position in comparison with others. In everyday life, the development of society, health and life of people depend on information.
Over the millennia, mankind has accumulated a tremendous amount of knowledge, which continues to grow. The amount of information these days doubles every two years. In any situation, even the most ordinary one, only relevant, complete, reliable and understandable information is effective. Only relevant, that is, timely information received can benefit people. It is important to know the weather forecast or hurricane warning the day before, and not on the same day.
Information- information about objects and phenomena of the environment, their parameters, properties and condition, which reduce the existing degree of uncertainty about them, incompleteness of knowledge.
Source (supplier) and consumer (recipient) of information.
Term information comes from the Latin informatio, which means clarification, information, presentation. In a broad sense information is defined as information (messages) about one or another side of the material world and processes. A message is a form of presentation of information in the form of speech, text, images, digital data, graphs, tables, etc.
Information is a general scientific concept that includes the exchange of information between people, the exchange of signals between animate and inanimate nature, people and devices.
It should be remembered that: information exists outside of its creator; information becomes a message as soon as it is expressed in a particular language.
Along with the concept of "information", the concept is often used data. Data can be considered as signs or recorded observations that for some reason are not used, but only stored. Therein
if it becomes possible to use this data to reduce uncertainty about something, the data turns into information. Therefore, it can be argued that information is the data used .
Information is structured data.
Information(in biology) = Biology studies living nature and the concept of "information" is associated with the appropriate behavior of living organisms. In living organisms, information is transmitted and stored using objects of various physical nature (state of DNA), which are considered as signs of biological alphabets. Genetic information is inherited and stored in all cells of living organisms.
Information(in philosophy) = this is interaction, reflection, knowledge.
Information(in cybernetics) = these are the characteristics of the control signal transmitted over the communication line.
The following approaches to the definition of information can be distinguished:
- traditional(common) used in computer science: Information- this is information, knowledge, messages about the state of affairs that a person perceives from the outside world with the help of the senses (sight, hearing, taste, smell, touch).
- probabilistic- used in information theory: Information- this is information about objects and phenomena of the environment, their parameters, properties and condition, which reduce the existing degree of uncertainty and incompleteness of knowledge about them.
Information is stored, transmitted and processed in symbolic (sign) form... The same information can be presented in different forms:
1) Signed writing, consisting of various signs, among which there is a symbolic one in the form of text, numbers, specials. characters; graphic; tabular, etc.
2) In the form of gestures or signals.
3) In oral verbal form (conversation).
The presentation of information is carried out using languages, as sign systems, which are built on the basis of a certain alphabet and have rules for performing operations on signs.
Language- a certain sign system for presenting information.
Natural languages- spoken and written languages. In some cases, spoken language can be replaced by the language of facial expressions and gestures, the language of special signs (for example, road);
Formal languages- special languages for various areas of human activity, which are characterized by a rigidly fixed alphabet, more stringent rules of grammar and syntax. These are the language of music (notes), the language of mathematics (numbers, mathematical signs), number systems, programming languages, etc.
Any language is based on alphabet- a set of symbols / signs.
The total number of characters in the alphabet is usually called the power of the alphabet.
Information carriers- medium or physical body for the transmission, storage and reproduction of information. These are electrical, light, thermal, sound, radio signals, magnetic and laser disks, printed publications, photographs, etc.
Concept, structure, classification, features of intelligent systems.
A system is called intelligent if it implements 3 basic functions:
1. Representation and processing of knowledge.
2. Reasoning.
3. Communication.
User
Functional mechanisms Knowledge base
Structural knowledge is knowledge about the operating environment. Metological knowledge - knowledge about the properties of knowledge.
1. Biochemical (everything related to the brain);
2. Programmatic and pragmatic direction (writing programs that replace functions).
1. Local (task) approach: for each task, special programs that achieve results no worse than a person.
2. A systematic approach based on knowledge - the creation of automation tools, the creation of the programs themselves.
3. An approach using the method of procedural programming - the creation of algorithms in natural languages.
The main sections of the IIT:
1. Knowledge management.
2. Formal languages and semantics.
3. Quantum semantics.
4. Cognitive modeling.
5. Convergent (converging) decision support systems.
6. Evolutionary genetic algorithms.
7. Neural networks.
8. Ant and immune algorithms.
9. Expert systems.
10. Fuzzy sets and calculations.
11. Non-monotone logics.
12. Active multi-agent systems.
13. Natural language communication and translation.
14. Pattern recognition, playing chess.
Characteristics of problem areas where the use of IIS is necessary:
1. The quality and efficiency of decision making.
2. Fuzzy goals.
3. Chaos, fluctuations and quantization of the behavior of the environment.
4. The multiplicity of factors interchangeable with each other.
5. Weak formalizability.
6. The uniqueness (non-stereotype) of the situation.
7. Latency (secrecy) of information.
8. Deviant implementation of plans, as well as the importance of small actions.
9. The paradox of decision logic.
Instability, lack of focus, chaos of the environment
Data, information and knowledge concept. Properties of knowledge and their difference from data.
Information is:
· Any information received and transmitted, stored by various sources;
· This is the whole set of information about the world around us, about all kinds of processes occurring in it, which can be perceived by living organisms, electronic machines and other information systems;
This is significant information about something, when the form of their presentation is also information, that is, it has a formatting function in accordance with its own nature;
· This is all that can be supplemented by our knowledge and assumptions.
Data is called information of an actual nature that describes objects, processes and phenomena of the subject area, as well as their properties. In the processes of computer processing, data goes through the following stages of transformation:
· The original form of data existence (results of observations and measurements, tables, reference books, diagrams, graphs, etc.);
· Presentation in special languages of data descriptions intended for input and processing of initial data in a computer;
· Databases on machine data carriers.
Knowledge - in the theory of artificial intelligence and expert systems - is a set of information and inference rules (for an individual, society or an AI system) about the world, properties of objects, patterns of processes and phenomena, as well as the rules for using them for making decisions. The main difference between knowledge and data lies in their structure and activity; the appearance of new facts in the database or the establishment of new connections can become a source of changes in decision-making.
In order to put knowledge into an information system, it must be represented by certain data structures corresponding to the chosen development environment for an intelligent system. Therefore, when developing an information system, knowledge is first accumulated and presented, and at this stage the participation of a person is mandatory, and then knowledge is represented by certain data structures that are convenient for storage and processing in a computer.
Knowledge in IP exists in the following forms:
· Initial knowledge (rules derived from practical experience, mathematical and empirical dependencies, reflecting the mutual relationships between facts; patterns and trends that describe the change in facts over time; functions, diagrams, graphs, etc.);
· Description of the initial knowledge by means of the chosen knowledge representation model (a set of logical formulas or production rules, a semantic network, frame hierarchies, etc.);
· Representation of knowledge by data structures that are intended for storage and processing in a computer;
· Knowledge bases on computer storage media.
Knowledge is a more complex category than data. Knowledge describes not only individual facts, but also the relationships between them, therefore knowledge is sometimes called structured data. Knowledge is the result of a person's mental activity aimed at generalizing his experience gained as a result of practical activity.
Knowledge is obtained as a result of applying some processing methods to the initial data, connecting external procedures.
DATA + PROCESSING PROCEDURE = INFORMATION
INFORMATION + PROCESSING PROCEDURE = KNOWLEDGE
A characteristic feature of knowledge is that it is not contained in the original system. Knowledge arises as a result of comparing information units, finding and resolving contradictions between them, i.e. knowledge is active, their appearance or shortage leads to the implementation of some actions or the emergence of new knowledge. Knowledge differs from data in the presence of the following properties.
Knowledge properties (from lectures):
· Internal interpretability (data + method data). Methodological - structured data representing the characteristics of the described entities for the purpose of their identification, search, assessment, management
The presence of connections (internal, external), the structure of the connection
Possibility of scaling (assessment of the ratio between information units) - quantitative
The presence of a semantic metric (means of assessing poorly formalized information units)
· The presence of activity (incompleteness, inaccuracy encourages them to develop, replenish).
Classification of knowledge
Knowledge- the form of existence and systematization of the results of human cognitive activity. Knowledge helps people to rationally organize their activities and solve various problems that arise in its process.
Knowledge(in the theory of artificial intelligence and expert systems) - a set of information and inference rules (from an individual, society or an AI system) about the world, properties of objects, patterns of processes and phenomena, as well as the rules for using them for making decisions.
The main difference between knowledge and data lies in their structure and activity; the appearance of new facts in the database or the establishment of new connections can become a source of changes in decision-making.
There are different types of knowledge:
Scientific,
Non-scientific,
Ordinary-practical (ordinary, common sense),
Intuitive,
Religious, etc.
Ordinary practical knowledge is unsystematic, unsubstantiated, unwritten. Ordinary knowledge serves as the basis for a person's orientation in the world around him, the basis for his daily behavior and foresight, but usually contains errors and contradictions. Scientific knowledge based on rationality is characterized by objectivity and universality, and claims to be of general validity. Its task is to describe, explain and predict the process and phenomenon of reality. Non-scientific knowledge is produced by a certain intellectual community according to standards that differ from rationalistic norms, and have their own sources and means of cognition.
Classification of knowledge
I. by nature. Knowledge can be declarative and procedural.
Declarative knowledge contain only an idea of the structure of certain concepts. This knowledge is close to data, facts. For example: a higher educational institution is a set of faculties, and each faculty, in turn, is a set of departments. Procedural knowledge is of an active nature. They define ideas about the means and ways of obtaining new knowledge, testing knowledge. These are different kinds of algorithms. For example: a brainstorming method for finding new ideas.
II. by the degree of scientificity. Knowledge can be scientific and extra-scientific.Scientific knowledge can be:
1) empirical (based on experience or observation);
2) theoretical (based on the analysis of abstract models, analogies, schemes that reflect the structure and nature of processes, i.e. generalization of empirical data).
Extra-scientific knowledge can be:
parascientific knowledge - teachings or reflections on phenomena, the explanation of which is not convincing from the point of view of the criteria of scientific character.
pseudoscientific - deliberately exploiting conjectures and prejudices.
quasi-scientific - they are looking for supporters and adherents, relying on methods of violence and coercion. Quasi-scientific knowledge, as a rule, flourishes in conditions of a strictly hierarchical science, where criticism of those in power is impossible, where the ideological regime is rigidly manifested. (In the history of Russia, the periods of the "triumph of quasi-science" are well known: Lysenkoism; fixism, etc.)
antiscientific - as utopian and deliberately distorting ideas about reality.
pseudoscientific - represent an intellectual activity that speculates on a set of popular theories (stories about ancient astronauts, about Bigfoot, about the Loch Ness monster)
everyday practical - delivering elementary information about nature and the surrounding reality. Everyday knowledge includes common sense, omens, edifications, recipes, personal experience, and traditions. Although it fixes the truth, it does not systematically and without proof.
personal - depending on the abilities of a particular subject and on the characteristics of his intellectual cognitive activity. Collective knowledge is generally significant (transpersonal), it presupposes the presence of concepts, methods, techniques and rules of construction common to the entire system. III. by location
Allocate personal(implicit, hidden, yet unformalized) knowledge and formalized(explicit) knowledge.
Implicit knowledge- the knowledge of people who have not yet been formalized and cannot be transferred to other people.
Formalized in some language (explicit) knowledge:
knowledge in documents;
knowledge on CDs;
knowledge in personal computers;
knowledge on the Internet;
knowledge in knowledge bases;
knowledge in expert systems, extracted from the tacit knowledge of human experts.
The distinctive characteristics of knowledge are still a subject of ambiguity in philosophy. According to most thinkers, for something to be considered knowledge, it must meet three criteria:
a) be verifiable,
b) be true,
c) trustworthy.
Similar information.
BASIC PROVISIONS
1. In everyday life, people often use the term "information", putting into it a simple meaning - "message". When they say: “We do not have enough information”, “I give information!”, “This is scientific information”, then intuitively the term “information” means a fairly wide range of meanings: “body of knowledge”, “data”, “concepts”, “ presentation ”,“ news ”,“ information ”.
There is still no generally accepted scientific formulation of the term "information". The proposed options are incomplete, often vague and inaccurate. In this case, it is customary in science to build a definition by listing, describing the properties of an object or phenomenon.
Let's consider the main properties of information. As an initial, working definition, we will take the most common: information is any kind of information (1). Here, the words "information" and "information" are considered synonymous. However, there are many situations when information does not carry information. So, AP Chekhov in the story "Teacher of Literature" puts into the mouth of the hero, teacher Ippolit Ippolitovich, a phrase that has become a symbol of communicative banality: "The Volga flows into the Caspian Sea, and the horses eat oats and hay." This information is true, however, it does not contain information. An important point in understanding the essence of the phenomenon under study: this message does not carry information, it contains a well-known fact.
Not all information is informative, but only those that carry something important, new, valuable to the recipient. It is the recipient of the message who decides whether to consider the message informative for himself. Taking into account the above, it is possible to clarify the previous formulation: information is such information that either has significance (value) for the recipient, or acquire it (2). Let's clarify a number of positions:
information exists in certain conditions, it is associated with them, there is a source of information, an informant object that can distribute some information;
information has unequal value from the point of view of users who receive it;
the receiver of the information makes a selection, dividing them into informative and useless (the latter are called noise).
Information in human communication always makes sense, based on the gap in knowledge between the speakers.
A public relations specialist or journalist must understand that his message will be perceived as informative only when it is relevant or presents facts in a new way, significantly arouses interest.
It is legitimate to talk about the subjective value of information. Not all people will perceive the same information as meaningful to themselves. Information about the exchange rate of world currencies is of significant value (informative) for a businessman, for the owner of the currency, but those who are not associated with foreign exchange transactions will be indifferent to them. The information is functionally related to the purposes of the recipient. In the ordinary sense, the arrival of a message is associated with some events. It is events that are the source of a message with or without information.
The process of exchanging information plays an important role in the life of any creature. The ability to transmit or receive information in the broadest sense is a criterion for life. A message about changes in conditions in the environment of existence is detected by a living organism as favorable and dangerous, requiring certain reactions. The concept of information is so comprehensive that some scientists include it in the definition of life, for example H. "Wiener.
Information participates in acts of communication with the outside world. Communication is communication, it is the exchange of information.
Thus, communication, information, vitality are concepts of the same circle.
Another property of information. Having lost its novelty, information disappears. We do not re-read the primer, since everything is known in it, it is not informative
Hence, some additional conclusions:
information is unknown, indefinite,
subjective information disappears after its perception by the user.
Uncertainty and informativeness are linked by mathematical dependencies, the greater the uncertainty, the more informative the message.
So, information has two conflicting properties:
it is a certain amount of data that exists objectively, independently, can be measured (for example, data in a computer; volume, number of printed characters in a book);
the informational value, the usefulness of this data is determined by the fact that they will be understandable to people, will be able to expand, clarify their knowledge. Consequently, the assessment of the "information content" of specific data is subjective; it depends on the amount of knowledge of a particular ndiaidum. The fact that the ratio 2x2 = 4 is a real discovery for a first grader, but after a while this information becomes commonplace for him.
In the XX century. in connection with the development of scientific knowledge, the concept of information has deepened significantly. Information began to be viewed as something independent within the framework of a new science, cybernetics, which studies control processes. Cybernetics proves that information participates in the processes of control and development of any systems (living organisms or automatic devices) that ensure stability and survival. Based on the initial cybernetic ideas, philosophers try to give a broad justification for their views on the properties of information as a philosophical category. In philosophical science, two leading ideas have developed, which differently explain the properties of information and its characteristics.
Adherents of one school (BV Biryukov, I.B. Novnk, A.D. Ursul, etc.) qualify information as a property of any material objects. In the opinion of the investigators of this direction (they are sometimes called the attributes of stam and), information can be extracted from any material object of life and inanimate nature. Matter is viewed as a repository of "dead information". The information is contained objectively, but in a hidden Hades. In the composition of objects of nature, there is always a certain structure (a set of parts, when the connections between the constituent parts are necessarily taken into account), which it is possible to cognize. Therefore, such information is called hidden, structural (sometimes - related). Only an observer, a person, can extract information. He processes it, encodes and recodes it to transfer information from object to subject. So, information is an actively and expediently used part of knowledge (3).
The meaning of activity consists in direct or indirect (for example, with the help of interpersonal contact in communication, etc.) interaction with the object of cognition. Information becomes in demand only if there is a reasonable being, the recipient of information, able to comprehend the content of the stored message. Information is updated when a cognizing, thinking subject appears, affects the receptors of his sense organs, causes appropriate reactions, decision-making, and is involved in managing behavior. This process (information extraction) is individual. For example, an artist admires a special shade in the color of a model's eyes, while a doctor sees signs of a dangerous disease in the same shades of eye color.
