Introduction
Chapter 2. Building the message code
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
Information systems have existed since the emergence of society, since at any stage of development, society needs to coordinate the processes carried out on the basis of the exchange of information and its management. This is especially true of production processes - processes associated with the production of material goods, since they are vital for the development of society. It is the production processes that are being improved most dynamically. And as they develop, their management becomes more complicated, which, in turn, stimulates the improvement and development of information systems as the most effective tool for transmitting messages between production participants.
Effective enterprise management in modern conditions is impossible without the use of computer technology. The correct choice of a software product and a developer company is the first and defining stage of accounting automation. Currently, the problem of choosing an information system (IS) from a specific task is turning into a standard procedure.
The managers of many Russian enterprises have little understanding of modern computer integrated systems and prefer to maintain a large staff of their own programmers who develop individual programs for solving standard management problems.
The procedure for making a decision on the choice of the most effective computer management system is new for the majority of domestic managers, and its consequences will largely have a significant impact on the enterprise for several years. Because the use of an integrated IS that would meet the requirements of the enterprise (scale, business specifics, etc.), would allow the head to minimize costs and increase the efficiency of enterprise management as a whole.
Chapter 1. Information support of the automated information system
1.1 The concept of an automated information system in the economy
In order to understand what an automated economic information system (hereinafter referred to as AIS) is, it is necessary first of all to determine its place in the management system of an economic object. The need for management arises when it is necessary to coordinate the actions of the members of a certain production team, united to achieve common goals. Such goals can be: ensuring the sustainability of the functioning or survival of the controlled object in the competitive struggle, obtaining maximum profit, entering the international market, etc. The goals are at first generalized, and then, in the process of clarification, they are formalized by the management apparatus in the form of target functions. Coordination of actions to achieve goals is based on a system of information exchange between production participants. The information exchange system includes certain procedures, in particular, registration, processing, information retrieval, etc.
In accordance with the cybernetic approach, a management system is a combination of a management object, for example, an enterprise, and a management subject - a management apparatus. The device unites employees who form goals, process information, develop and make decisions, as well as control their implementation. The role of AIS in the control loop of economic objects is to prepare, process and issue information to control operators - managers and specialists (Figure - 1).
The task of the control object includes the implementation of the activity for which the control system was created, as well as the presentation of data on the status of plans execution.
Figure - 1. AIS in the loop of the economic object management system: PS - feedforward, OS - feedback
Both components of the control system are linked by direct and feedback. Direct connection is expressed by the flow of directive information directed from the management apparatus to the management object. Feedback is a flow of reporting information on the implementation of decisions made in the opposite direction. These types of links in the control system exist between the subject and the control object directly, as well as through the AIS. In this case, communication is carried out in terms of solving problems of transferring and processing information.
The interrelation of the source of information - the control apparatus, the receiver of information - the enterprise, as well as the channels of information transmission between the source and the receiver of information (direct and feedback) and constitute the information system (hereinafter IS) of the economic object.
The increase in the amount of information in the control loop, the complication of its processing entailed first the introduction of computers in individual operations, and then the expansion of their use. Traditional IP began to change qualitatively. A new structural unit appeared in the management apparatus, the only function of which was to ensure the information management process based on the use of computer technology. In this regard, new information flows appeared in the control loop, and the old flows partially changed their direction. Part of the traditional IS began to gradually but steadily transform in the direction of more and more automation of information processing. Taking into account the scope of application, the following stand out:
Technical IS;
Economic IS;
IP in humanitarian fields, etc.
Since hereinafter we will talk about IP of an economic nature, it is necessary to introduce the concept of AIS in the field of economics. AIS in economics is a set of methods and means of informational, technical, software-mathematical and organizational-legal nature, designed to provide information support for solving economic problems. Thus, it is possible to designate the branch type of AIS - an economic automated information system (hereinafter referred to as EAIS). With the help of UAIS, unfortunately, far from all the information used to manage an economic object can be processed, since huge information flows circulate at enterprises, which play an important role in making decisions, the processing of which in their full volume with the help of computers is impossible. There are several reasons for this:
- the complexity of structuring information and formalizing the processes of its processing;
- insufficient number of computing devices (computer park);
- lack of economic feasibility, etc.
AIS provide a solution to economic problems and thus are included in the subject area of economics. The subject area (hereinafter SbA) of economics in the context of the AIS is a collection of information about the structure, processes and properties of economic objects and AIS, the methods of interrelation and the processes of interaction between them. The SbA largely determines the specifics of solving the problems of the construction and operation of the AIS. A generalized understanding of an SbA can be represented as a set of objects, processes, their quantitative and qualitative characteristics, as well as connections between them, united by a common idea, a certain meaning or concept of a higher level.
When building and operating AIS, the following main categories are taken into account, which are displayed as backbone signs of AIS: goals, objectives, functions of the system, structure, technology for creating and functioning of AIS, the initial conditions for the functioning of the system, factors affecting the level of quality and efficiency of AIS, etc.
Thus, the purpose of AIS is to provide specialists with information for solving economic problems. One form of outcome is information products and services provided to consumers. In addition, the result of the IS should be the required quality of information products. Hence, the purpose of AIS is also to improve the quality of information provided to specialists - AIS users.
Tasks constitute an important category of the functional structure of the AIS. Through the solution of tasks, the achievement of its goal is ensured. The AIS task is a set of methods, tools and procedures, the implementation of which ensures the achievement of the AIS goal.
When considering tasks, it should be borne in mind that there are two main classes of tasks: universal and special. In accordance with the goal, the main universal tasks of AIS are:
- carrying out the processes of converting information and issuing it in a form that is convenient for perception;
- saving resources when performing information transformation processes;
- development of the social status of workers employed in the contour of the functioning of the AIS.
Special tasks are determined by the nature of production and those tasks that the enterprise solves to achieve the set goal. These include:
- ensuring the required volume of production;
- ensuring the rhythm in the production of products or services of the enterprise (firm);
- carrying out measures to ensure a given level of product quality;
- carrying out a technical and economic analysis;
- implementation of the material and technical supply of the enterprise;
- ensuring the marketing activities of the enterprise;
- providing organizational and technical measures for the development of the enterprise, etc.
Obviously, the tasks of the AIS represent the basic category of its correspondence to the professional needs of economists. This determines its uniqueness in the socio-economic space. Because of this, the problem of defining AIS tasks is of key importance in the contour of economic management and organization of the information environment.
1.2 Structure and integrity of an automated information system
One of the dominant categories of AIS is its structure (Latin structura - structure, location, order). The concept of "structure" has been used for a long time and is used as one of the means of defining the concepts of form, organization, display of the content of a certain object. In the conventional sense, the word "structure" refers to the totality of the constituent parts of an object. However, these parts can only organize the structure if there are certain connections between them. The structure of the AIS is a way of interconnecting the elements of the system, ensuring its integrity. The ways of interconnection of structural elements should be such that it is possible to ensure the integrity of the object, its identity to itself in various conditions of existence. Thus, the integrity of the AIS is an essential characteristic related primarily to its structure. The integrity of the AIS is a property of the AIS that ensures the stability and functioning of the system in accordance with its purpose.
The generic structure of AIS is determined by a complex of classification signs, or properties. These signs can act as the basis for dividing the AIS into structural groups or classes. By the nature of the tasks being solved, modern AIS can be conditionally divided into four main classes:
1) Automated data processing systems;
2) Automated information retrieval systems;
3) Automated control systems;
4) Automated intelligent information systems.
In theoretical terms, the issues of the structure of a separate AIS can be considered conditionally dividing it into supporting and functional parts. Each of these parts is differentiated into the constituent components of the structure - the supporting and functional subsystems of the AIS.
The general structure of the IS can be considered as a set of subsystems, regardless of the scope. Thus, we will display the structure of the supporting part, which can be represented by a set of supporting subsystems (Figure - 2).
Figure - 2. The structure of the information system
Thus, at present, it is customary to distinguish subsystems of technical, informational, mathematical, software, organizational and legal, personnel support in the composition of the supporting part of the information system.
1.3 Information support of the automated information system
One of the essential structural components of the AIS is the information support subsystem. The subsystem "Information support" of the AIS is a set of databases, files, documents and linguistic means, which ensures the implementation of the information component of the AIS. The subsystem structure consists of the following main blocks:
Work description
Information systems have existed since the emergence of society, since at any stage of development, society needs to coordinate the processes carried out on the basis of the exchange of information and its management. This is especially true for production processes - processes associated with the production of material goods, since they are vital for the development of society. It is the production processes that are being improved most dynamically.
Content
Introduction 3
Chapter 1. Information support of the automated information system 4
1.1 The concept of an automated information system in economics 4
1.2 Structure and integrity of an automated information system 8
1.3 Information support of the automated information system 9
Chapter 2. Building the message code 23
Conclusion 25
List of used literature 27
Chapter 3 information support of is
The structure of economic information
The structure and content of information support (IO)
The concept of classifiers and codes of economic information and the technology of their application
The procedure for the development of forms of input and output documents
Improvement of document flow in the context of IS creation and the use of electronic document flow
Structure of in-machine information support
Databank, its composition and features
Data warehouses and knowledge bases
3.1. The concept of information support, its structure
Information support (IO) is an important component of automated information systems and is directly related to the organizational structure of the object and the functional subsystems of the IS.
Information support is intended to reflect information characterizing the state of the managed object; serves as the basis for making management decisions.
The basis of information support is information. In the theory of machine processing, information is considered in relation to the technology of its transformation for control purposes, i.e. as a set of information that is the object of collection, transfer, storage and processing. Information can be recorded in documents and on machine media; is an object and means of labor.
As a means of labor, information affects the control object in order to develop control decisions. As a subject of labor, information is the basis for the construction of information technology.
The structure of economic information is quite complex and includes various combinations of information structures with a hierarchical structure. In fig. 3.1 is an example of a hierarchical structure of an information system.
Information system of an economic object
Information subsystem 1
Information subsystem 2
Information subsystem n
Information Stream 1
Information Stream 2
Information flow n
Information array 1 (file)
Information array 2 (file)
Information array n (file)
Information Message 1 (document)
Signs (numbers, letters)
Signs (numbers)
Rice. 3.1. The structure of economic information
A logical approach to the structuring of economic information made it possible to distinguish the following structural units, depending on their functional purpose: requisite, indicator, document, information message, information array (file), information subsystem and information system. Let's consider the functional purpose and role of various structural elements in automated processing.
Information units of the lowest level are details and indicators that serve as the basis for drawing up documents and storing them in the memory of the machine.
The props is the simplest unit, it consists of signs - numbers and letters that have semantic meaning and cannot be further divided. The requisites are not unambiguous in their purpose and are subdivided into attribute attributes, reflecting the qualitative aspect of the object, for example, the name of the material, and base attributes, reflecting the quantitative line of the object, for example, the amount of material, amount, volume, length, etc.
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Attributes-attributes are subject to logical processing (sorting, grouping, search), attributes-bases - arithmetic processing. The combination of one base and all the attributes related to it forms an indicator - a logical statement containing the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the reflected phenomenon.
Based on this definition, it can be seen that the above example reflects two metrics.
Each indicator has many values and is calculated according to its own algorithm.
A document is a composite unit of information that includes many details and gives certain quantitative and qualitative (or only qualitative) characteristics of an object, process, phenomenon.
Each economic problem is characterized by certain forms of documents and the system of indicators contained in them.
The document is reflected on paper. Further, in the memory of the machine, all homogeneous documents (information messages) are formed into an information file - the main structural unit of information storage in computer memory during automated processing of economic tasks.
Information files have different functionalities. So, files are allocated conditionally constant, variable, input, intermediate, result, archive and other information. Some files are used only for processing one task, others - for several tasks. As a rule, a large number of information files are involved in the automated processing of an economic task.
For example, when processing financial transactions related to cash settlements, information files of the chart of accounts, directories of accountable persons, cash receipts and other documents are created, on the basis of which consolidated reporting is generated: cash book, journal-order No. 1, etc.
The set of various information files used to process any complex of economic tasks (for example, accounting for cash transactions) organizes the next, already quite complex, structural unit of information - an information flow.
As a rule, the creation of IS provides for the automated processing of economic tasks of various functional subsystems. For example, in the functional subsystem "Accounting" financial and settlement operations, accounting of labor and wages, accounting of goods and materials, accounting of fixed assets, accounting of production, consolidated reporting are automated, which makes it possible to highlight the information subsystem "Accounting".
The allocation of information subsystems in the IS depends on the type of activity of the object.
So, for example, in the IS of enterprises and organizations there is a functional subsystem "Accounting"; in the IS of the bank - "Operational day of the bank".
The totality of all information subsystems of an object constitutes a structural unit of information of the highest level - an information system that implements various management functions.
The creation of information systems and information technologies requires the organization and allocation of a special subsystem - information support.
The basis of information support is the system of indicators of the subject area. For example, in accounting, the system of indicators is determined by various areas of accounting, financial reporting; in banking, the systems of indicators are associated with settlement and cash services for legal entities, credit, deposit and foreign exchange transactions, deposits of individuals, etc.
The concept of "Information support" appeared in the 1970s. in connection with the introduction of computers in the practice of processing economic problems and with the creation of automated control systems (ACS). The structure of IO was developed, suggesting the division of IO into out-of-machine (system of indicators, classifiers and codes, documentation, information flows) and in-machine (information arrays (files) in the computer memory and on machine media).
In the context of the use of personal computers for processing economic tasks, the continuity of the previously developed principles for creating IO is preserved, but the benchmark is made on the following:
organization of AWP and active participation of the user in the computing process (decentralized processing);
automatic generation of primary documents by a personal computer (paperless technology);
network integrated processing of complexes of economic tasks of an enterprise (organization);
creation of a distributed database of the organization;
extensive information and reference services for users;
electronic document management;
e-mail, Internet access.
It can be considered that the division of information support into out-of-machine and intra-machine is rather arbitrary, since the modern automated technology for processing economic tasks is based mainly on information files located in the memory of the computer's information system. There is an automatic creation of primary documents by a computer, while the input from paper media is constantly decreasing. Document flow takes on an automated form; the route of their movement is established by the machine program.
The structure of information support includes:
the system of indicators of the subject area (for example, indicators of accounting, financial and credit activities, etc.);
classification and coding systems for economic information;
a unified documentation system created manually or automatically;
information flows using various options for organizing electronic document management;
information arrays (files) stored in a machine on machine media, having a different degree of organization (data bank) and subject to automated processing.
The purpose of information support is as follows.
1. Ensuring the organization of the presentation of information to users for the fulfillment of professional tasks for the preparation of management decisions, as well as the creation of working conditions for automated information technologies.
Ensuring mutual coordination of the tasks of functional subsystems based on an unambiguous formalized description of their inputs and outputs at the level of indicators and documents.
Creation of an effective organization of storage and retrieval of data, which makes it possible to generate data for solving regulated tasks, as well as to function in the mode of information and reference service.
The composition of the information support is determined at the stage of designing the IS with the active participation of users.
The basis of its development is the data of the analysis of the survey of information systems of an economic object, during which the composition of the used documentation, the content of the database, information links of the complexes of economic problems are determined. A significant role in the creation of IO is assigned to the results of the formulation of the problem, in the course of the development of which users determine the specific composition of primary and summary documents, present their structure, methods of compiling them, etc. (see chapter 2).
The design of the IO is carried out in close connection with the technology of automated processing and software.
3.2. Classifiers, codes and technology of their application
Automated processing of accounting and financial and credit information in the context of the use of personal computers allows you to receive various summaries, tables, statements, where information is located according to any grouping details-signs, for example, on accounting accounts, clients, employees, etc. To perform groupings, it becomes necessary to encode these grouping attributes-attributes with conventional symbols, for which various classifiers are used.
A classifier is a systematized collection of homogeneous names of objects, objects, phenomena according to classification criteria (nomenclature) and their code designations. Code is a conventional designation of an object in digital or alphanumeric characters according to certain rules established by coding systems.
Coding is the process of assigning symbols (codes) to items of the nomenclature. Codes can be digital, alphabetic and combined (examples: digital code - 21325, alphabetic - ABS; combined - AB180).
When processing economic tasks on a PC, mnemonic codes are often used - a conditional short designation of an object. For example, in some machine programs the names of documents are encoded with mnemonic codes, for example, a payment order - PP.
In some cases, the machine program provides for the automatic coding of items, as well as the use of barcodes.
A number of requirements are imposed on codes: they must cover all nomenclatures subject to coding; be the same for different tasks within one economic entity (for example, codes of materials, divisions should be the same for accounting, warehouse accounting and material and technical supply tasks); be stable; have a reserve of free numbers (but not excessive, as this can lead to an increase in the value of the code); the length of the code mark should be as short as possible.
The main purpose of coding is to unambiguously identify objects. With the help of coding, the main functions associated with the processing of economic information are performed: minimization of the volume of characteristic information when entering it into a computer system via communication channels; sorting and searching information by keywords; development of consolidated economic reports on various grounds; decoding when switching from feature codes to their names when printing consolidated economic reports.
The systematization of economic information necessitates the use of various types of classifiers: international and operating only on the territory of the Russian Federation. International classifiers are part of the System of International Economic Standards (ISES) and are mandatory for the transfer of information between different countries. These include, for example, such UN classifications as the International Standard Industrial Classification of All Economic Activities (ISIC), the International Standard Trade Classification, the Central Product Classification (CPC), the classification of food and agricultural organizations, etc.
The classifiers operating on the territory of the Russian Federation are included in the Unified System of Classification and Coding (ESKK), created by government decree in the 1970s.
ESKK consists of the following groups of classifiers:
all-Russian classifiers (OK), are developed in a centralized manner and are uniform for the whole country;
industry-specific, uniform for a certain branch of activity;
regional, uniform - for a given territory;
local, are compiled into nomenclatures typical for a given enterprise, organization, bank, (codes of personnel numbers, divisions, customers, etc.).
When processing accounting and financial and credit information, all-Russian and local classifiers are widely used.
All-Russian classifiers (OK) - have been revised in accordance with the requirements of a market economy and the state program for the transition of the Russian Federation to the International System of Accounting and Statistics. Currently, over four dozen of them have been created.
Let us give examples of constructing code words of some OK that are most used in the automated processing of accounting and financial-credit information.
OKPO - OK of enterprises and organizations is formed by state statistics bodies by assigning code numbers to enterprises, organizations, firms of any form of ownership. The code word consists of three blocks: 1 - registration number, 2 - name of the organization, 3 - departmental, territorial and sectoral affiliation of the enterprise, organization, firm. Registration number (part of the code word) is put down by enterprises and organizations in the forms of financial statements. All three blocks of the code word are used by the state statistics bodies for automatic maintenance of OKPO in electronic form. The registration number consists of eight characters; built on a combined system.
OKVED - OK of types of economic activities; (built in accordance with the requirements of the European Economic Community - EEC); the six-digit codeword includes five features (class, subclass, group, subgroup, type).
OKFS - OK forms of ownership, two-digit, for example: 10 - Russian property, 20 - property of foreign states.
OKOPF - OK organizational-legal form includes a two-digit code word. For example, code 65 is a limited liability company; 67 - closed joint stock company.
OKUD - OK management documentation. The object of the classification is the all-Russian unified forms of documents approved by the ministries (departments) of the Russian Federation, which are part of the unified documentation system (USD). The code consists of seven characters. The first two characters indicate that the document belongs to a certain field of activity. For example: 03 - primary accounting documentation (0315003 - credit slip); 04 - bank documents; 07 - accounting reporting documentation (0700001 balance sheet).
OKOGU - OK of government bodies - the objects of classification are government and government bodies; the code is five-digit.
OKATO - OK administrative-territorial division; the code word contains eight characters. The objects of classification are republics, territories, regions, cities, districts, districts, urban-type settlements, rural settlements.
TIN - taxpayer identification number, ten-digit; denotes the territory, the number of the inspection of the Ministry of Taxes and Levies (IMNS), the serial number of the organization.
OKOF - OK of fixed assets, built taking into account the international classification of industries and basic products, has a ten-digit code word.
OKEI - OK units of measurement, built on the basis of the international classification of units of measurement of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE). Units of measurement in OKEI are divided into seven groups: measures of length, area, volume, mass, engineering units, time units, economic units (piece, thousand pieces). The three-digit code is built according to the serial system. For example, the unit of measurement in the balance sheet, thousand rubles. has code 384.
All-Russian classifiers also include: OKIN - OK information about the population; OKUN - OK of services to the population; OKPDTR - OK of professions of workers, positions of employees and wage grades; OKB - currency classifier; OKP - OK products, etc.
When registering an enterprise (organization) with the state statistics authorities, it is included in the Unified State Register of Enterprises and Organizations (USRPO) and assigned codes according to the following classifiers: OKPO, OKVED, OKFS, OKOGU, OKOPF and OKATO. The assigned code designations are reflected in the primary and consolidated unified documentation of the enterprise and organization.
The system of automated processing of banking information also provides for the mandatory use of nomenclature designations with code marks. The most complex is the personal account code, the structure of which since 1998 has been built in accordance with the new chart of accounts and international standards.
The instructions of the Bank of Russia recommend a complex structure of the personal account code, built according to a combined system and including up to 11 grouping signs. The value of the code is 20 characters, which include: number of the bank section of the chart of accounts (3 characters); first order account number (2-3 characters); second order account number (4-5 characters); currency code (6-8 characters); security key (9 characters); branch number, bank branch (10-13 characters); bank client's personal account number (14-20 characters).
If necessary, the significance can be expanded up to 25 digits.
For example, the bank customer's personal account code 40702810938170100653 has the structure:
4 - the account refers to section 4 of the chart of accounts "transactions with customers";
07 - the account belongs to a non-state enterprise;
02 - the account belongs to a commercial organization;
810 ^ currency code of the Russian Federation (rubles);
9 - a security key that detects the wrong code in the payment order;
3817 - number (code) of the bank branch;
0100653 - personal account of a commercial organization in this bank.
Local codes are compiled for items specific to a given organization. This includes a wide range of nomenclatures used by various departments and services of its management (employees, departments, products, etc.). Local codes should be uniform when solving various economic problems. Along with information technology specialists, user economists play a significant role in the compilation of classifiers.
Let us briefly consider the procedure for compiling local classifiers, which includes two stages. At the first stage, information is classified, at the second, its coding.
Classification begins with identifying the nomenclature of objects, items to be encoded. In this case, they are guided by the attributes-signs, which are used to compose groupings, obtain summary tables and calculations. For each nomenclature, a complete list of all items subject to coding is compiled.
After drawing up the classification, the next stage is performed - coding - the process of assigning symbols to the items of the nomenclature. After agreement and approval, the work on the creation of the classifier is considered complete.
Let's consider the features of coding methods. Information is encoded according to a certain system - a set of rules that determine the construction of the code. Currently, several systems for coding economic information are used, among which the most widespread are: ordinal, serial, positional and combined. The choice of a coding system depends on a number of factors, the main of which are the number of features to be distinguished in the nomenclature, the number of positions in each feature and the degree of stability of the nomenclature.
When building an ordinal system, all items of the nomenclature are coded according to the lowest attribute by assigning ordinal numbers without a reserve. Therefore, the ordinal system has limited application and is used when coding stable unambiguous nomenclatures.
According to the ordinal system, the computer automatically encodes unambiguous nomenclatures.
The serial system complements the ordinal; it can encode two or more characteristic nomenclatures. Each group of major item characteristics is assigned a series of numbers, and each position of minor item characteristics is coded with a sequential number. The serial system provides backup numbers for major nomenclature attributes.
With a positional coding system, each feature is clearly distinguished and one or more digits are assigned to it, depending on its significance. Then each feature is coded separately, starting with 1, 01, 001, and so on, depending on the value of the feature. This code provides automatic generation of all necessary totals in the machine in accordance with the selected features.
The combined system, like the positional one, provides for a clear selection of all the characteristics of the nomenclature. But at the same time, each feature can be coded according to any system: ordinal, serial or positional. The combined system is more flexible and is widely used in solving economic problems, since it automatically provides all the necessary results in accordance with the selected features.
In addition to the coding systems mentioned, a repetition code and a chess system are also used, which have limited application. The repetition code is the number of specific nomenclatures, for example, a garage number of a car, a warehouse number, etc. The chess system is used to encode two-digit nomenclatures with a stable connection. It is built in the form of a table and resembles a positional system.
Let us consider practical examples of the use of some codes in the computer solution of economic problems.
Accounting account codes are widely used in both manual and automated processing. Under the existing accounting system, the accounting account code (working chart of accounts) can consist of three levels: the first (two characters) means a balance sheet account; the second is a subaccount; the third is an analytical account installed at the enterprise, organization.
In machine programs for automated processing of accounting, there are various approaches to constructing an analytical accounting code. As a rule, the structure of the code is distinguished by different levels of analyticity and different meanings. Programs allow you to keep records of different levels of analytics (different attributes), which are installed at a particular enterprise, organization (firm).
The construction of a code of accounting accounts (a working chart of accounts) is of great importance in those programs that do not provide for local processing of individual accounting areas, where all accounting is performed on the basis of maintaining a journal of business organizations, which is typical for small enterprises. At the same time, a flexible code building system allows performing analytical developments with varying degrees of detail. Analytic levels are the characteristics by which data is grouped. For example, for account 70 "Payments with personnel on remuneration", two levels can be distinguished: the first - for the department, the second - for personnel numbers. In this case, analytical summaries will be compiled in the context of divisions and personnel numbers. For account 10 "Materials", for example, three levels of analytics can be distinguished: the first is a group of materials (one character), a subaccount, set in the chart of accounts; the second is a warehouse (one character); the third is the nomenclature number of materials (two characters).
Let's give an example of constructing a code for oil paint 108301, taking into account the dependence of all the selected features:
oil paint part number
warehouse building
materials
subaccount of construction
materials
balance sheet account "materials"
The code is multi-valued, with four features highlighted, built according to the positional system.
When capitalizing and issuing materials, all these codes must be entered in the primary document. In this case, with automated processing, it will be possible to obtain various summaries of synthetic and analytical accounting in the context of the selected features.
3.3. Barcoding and the technology of its application in economic activity
In the technology of computer processing of financial and economic problems, a significant place is given to the issues of automated input of primary information. For this purpose, information technology based on the use of bar coding is used in various fields of activity (trade, banking system, post offices, etc.). For this purpose, consumer goods are supplied with labels and tags with a barcode that uniquely identifies the product and its manufacturer. At the places of acceptance and sale of goods, there are technical means - scanners that allow you to automatically read this code and enter the information received into a computer for processing it, as well as to make cash payments for the goods sold, which ultimately increases the efficiency of management.
The barcode is an alternation of light and dark stripes of different widths and is based on the principle of the binary number system: wide lines and wide gaps are assigned the value 1; narrow - 0.
The following coding standards are most widely used for coding goods in production and trade:
UPC (Uniform Product Code), adopted in the United States in 1973 to code goods in trade;
EAN (European Article Numbering), created in Europe in 1977 on the basis of the UPC: European coding system, which received the status of the International EAN Association; used by many countries around the world.
There are also other barcode systems (UCC / EAN, etc.). Coding standards EAN-8, EAN-13 and UCC / EAN are widely used in the Russian Federation (Fig. 3.2).
Rice. 3.2. An example of building an EAN-8 code (460 - Russia code, 0234 - product code, 1 - check number)
Depending on the significance, for example, the codes EAN-8, EAN-13, UPC-12 are distinguished, where the numbers indicate the significance of the code.
The structure of the EAN-8 code is shown in Fig. 3.2 and means the following:
The first three digits are the country of origin of the goods, the next four are the product, the last digit is the control one.
The structure of the 13-bit EAN-13 code allows you to highlight more features: country, manufacturer, name of the product of this manufacturer, control number.
When building a barcode, a modified, floating structure can be used, when, for example, two or three characters are assigned to a country, an enterprise code - up to six characters, a product code - up to six characters.
The country code is assigned by the International Association, for example, the USA and Canada have codes - LLC, 010, 030, 040, 050; France - 300-370, Germany 400-430, Russia - 460-469. The manufacturer's code is assigned centrally, the product codes are decentralized by the manufacturing enterprises, after the decision to release it. This information is transmitted in advance or together with the goods to consumers, wholesalers, shops where there is an automated system.
The most widespread bar coding is used in the production and sale of consumer goods, which makes it possible to automate the accounting of production and sale of goods, increase the speed and culture of customer service, keep an operational record of incoming and sold goods in each store, section, warehouse.
The main object of coding in production and trade is the commodity. Its specific unit is uniquely identified; goods that differ in at least one feature (price, weight, size) must have different codes, since only in this case it is possible to carry out automated processing of information on each product, assortment, unambiguously determining the price when selling by code.
This coding capability is provided by the EAN code, which is the most widely used in trade.
The trade and operational activity of retail trade enterprises consists of a set of interrelated processes for the purchase and delivery of goods, their acceptance, storage and preparation for sale, sale of goods, financial transactions, the formation of a product range based on the study of consumer demand.
Therefore, great importance is attached to the introduction of automated processing technology with the use of barcodes, which provides a quick input of information into a computer at all sections of the movement of goods and the receipt of result information in real time.
Accounting and analysis of demand, commodity stocks at all stages of commodity circulation allow you to timely increase the level of management in a market economy and fierce competition.
The implementation of computer technology using barcodes and cash registers is widely used in complex accounting, warehouse and trading systems.
The most powerful representative is the BEST-4 program, which is focused on wholesale and retail trade, where integration with various cash registers, retail equipment (electronic scales), barcode scanners and thermal printers is implemented.
Other software systems that implement the technology for working with barcodes include the Galaktika system (the Retail trade circuit), BEST-shop, etc.
The use of barcodes is increasingly being used in various fields of activity.
In bank documents, bar codes can be used to encode organizations and enterprises (OKPO), company account numbers in specific banks, and bank names. When calculating the population for utilities, barcodes are also used. You can put the account number on the covers of passbooks. Barcodes can also be used to identify postal addresses (instead of or in conjunction with existing 6-bit stylized fonts). An important area of application of bar coding is the printing industry - an industry designed to provide the printing of bar codes themselves. Printed products include books, brochures, newspapers, magazines, etc.
In the near future, barcodes will be used almost everywhere where clear identification of names is required in order to read them automatically, for example, various official documents for a car, cash documents, passbooks, check books, credit cards, travel tickets, etc.
3.4. Documentation and methods of its formation
The performance of management functions is closely related to the transformation, analysis and evaluation of information. The main carrier of information is a document - a material carrier containing information in a fixed form, drawn up in the prescribed manner and having legal force in accordance with the current legislation.
The document is a means of confirming financial transactions and is widely used for operational management.
For example, the invoice data serves as the basis for the shipment of products to customers. All operations of banks (settlement, cash, loan, etc.) are reflected in accounting on the basis of monetary documents. The latter are received by bank institutions from business entities (organizations) and contain the necessary information about the nature of financial transactions, allowing them to check their legality and exercise banking control. The collection of all documents circulating in the control system represents a documentation system focused on the performance of certain functions. So, the set of documents used by the bank to manage money circulation, interbank settlements, lending, forms bank documentation.
The set of documents reflecting the performance of business transactions at an enterprise (organization) is accounting documentation, distributed by accounting areas: labor and wages, materials, fixed assets, etc.
In the financial authorities, the documentation system is used to form the budget, national income, etc.
The reduction of processing cycles and the timely receipt of all the necessary data on the results of the production and economic activities of the organization largely depend on the correct and carefully developed documentation system.
Documents are classified according to a number of characteristics:
the nature of the information: primary and resultant;
in relation to the control object - incoming and outgoing;
field of activity - planning, accounting, statistical, banking, financial, accounting, etc .;
appointment - administrative, executive, exculpatory, combined;
method of use - one-time and accumulative;
the number of items taken into account - single-line and multi-line;
filling method - manually or using automation.
In accounting and financial and credit authorities, the adopted documentation systems are governed by the existing uniform regulations, rules and instructions developed by the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation, the Federal State Statistics Service, and the Central Bank of the Russian Federation.
The development of information systems providing for the exchange of information between them required the unification and standardization of documentation. Document unification was carried out on a national scale in the 1970s. by the resolution of the State Committee of Standards "Unified documentation systems used in ACS", which defines the requirements for a unified documentation system (USD), i.e. a set of interrelated documents that meet uniform rules and construction requirements.
The structure of the USD includes accounting, reporting and statistical, financial, banking, settlement and payment and other documentation. Each document is assigned a code in accordance with the All-Russian Classifier of Management Documentation (OKUD). For example, the payment order is 0401060.
For a number of documents, uniform unified and standard forms of forms have been developed. The unification has put forward a number of requirements for documents, the main of which is the convenience of computer processing of information.
The documentation in force in financial and credit authorities is completely unified and mandatory for use in all organizations. The creation of a completely unified system of documentation for all areas of accounting is not yet possible due to the variety of industry forms and methods for some areas of accounting. Samples of standardized documents are contained in special albums.
When creating an IS at an enterprise (organization), it is recommended to use unified forms of documents, the composition of which is determined in the process of design work.
When drawing up the primary document, all the requirements of GOST are observed regarding the standard form of construction and adaptation to automated processing. The location of the main details in the document is carried out in accordance with GOST in three parts: heading, content (tabular) and formatting, in which six zones are distinguished (Fig. 3.3).
Rice. 3.3. Sample Form for Building a Primary Unified Document
The following details are placed in the zones: zone 1 - the name of the enterprise (organization, structural unit), its postal address, bank details;
zone 2 - the code of the form and the stamp of its approval;
zone 3 - the name and codes of the document-permanent attributes. At the top of the document, a frame is highlighted for affixing codes. For each attribute, two cells are allocated - for typing the name of the attribute-attribute and its code by typographic method. Zone 3 is outlined with a thickened line, which indicates the input of details into the PC during computational processing;
zone 4 - name of the document, date of compilation;
zone 5 - tabular section of the document containing the names of the lines, columns and their values. In the table, variable attributes (signs and bases) entered into the PC are distinguished with thickened lines;
zone 6 - signatures of legal entities responsible for the correctness of the preparation of documents, the date of filling out the document.
The stated requirements are associated with the order of placing document data in the memory of the machine and with an increase in the efficiency of automated processing.
When designing bank primary documents, the requirements for a unified documentation system are generally observed. A sample of a unified banking document is shown in Fig. 3.4.
Modern information technology provides for the input of data from completed primary documents into a computer directly by the user by typing data on the keyboard. First, the formation of the primary document takes place on the display screen, and then in the storage device (in the database) of the machine. An information file of homogeneous documents is created, which is used in the future to perform all the necessary calculations and compile summary data.
To enter primary documents into a PC, input layouts are used (Fig. 3.5).
The layout determines the sequence in which the data of the primary document is placed on the display screen. It is developed when composing a machine program and in different programs it can have different construction options. However, in any case, variable details are entered manually into the layout displayed on the screen, and constant and reference data are entered automatically. At the same time, visual and machine control is carried out for the filling of details, their compliance with permissible values, logical and arithmetic control of details, control for checksums. If an erroneous entry is found, a diagnostic message is displayed on the screen and the entries are subject to correction.
Order - order No.
on issue (repayment)
short-term loan
Rice. 3.4. An example of building a unified banking document
A register of documents drawn up is kept in the car. If desired, it is possible to print a document in a unified form (Fig. 3.6).
The development of computer technology and programming methods using a graphical interface allowed a new approach to the creation of documents in a computer, which can rightfully be called an electronic document.
An electronic document is a structured copy of the original document reflected in the memory of the machine and on the display screen. The electronic document must meet all the requirements of the USD; contain all the necessary details in an order that meets the requirements of computer processing. Along with text content
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coding of attribute attributes is used, according to which the information is grouped. The output of an electronic document for printing is executed in accordance with the requirements established for a document drawn up manually.
Rice. 3.5. An example of building a layout for entering credit orders (1C: Accounting 7.7)
The technology for processing an electronic document provides for the presence in a computer of layouts of all necessary primary documents developed by a machine program. The list of primary documents is contained in the "menu" of the program (for example, in the "1C: Accounting" program in the "Documents" function). When the corresponding name of the document is called, a document layout appears on the display screen, the details of which are filled in differently.
Consider the process of filling in the "Receipt Order No. 000026", shown in Fig. 3.5. The document number is entered automatically; the date is selected from the calendar; type of receipt, warehouse, supplier, contract, name of material, unit of measure, price - filled in automatically based on previously compiled reference books. Only the percentage of VAT and the amount of material is put down manually; the columns "Amount", "VAT" and "Total" are filled in automatically.
|
Material values |
unit of measurement |
Quantity |
price, rub. cop. |
Amount excluding VAT, rub. cop. |
VAT amount, rub. cop. |
Total taking into account VAT, rub. cop. |
Passport ID |
Ordinal warehouse file number |
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name, grade, brand, size |
stock number |
Name |
according to document |
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Napkins |
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Gloves cut. |
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Sponge for washing dishes |
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Food film |
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1. Documents outside the machine sphere of the IO
General characteristics of documents. All documents are characterized by a name that reflects the content of the document, and a form that determines the structure of the document. Consider the characteristics of technical and economic documents.
By the nature of their occurrence, documents are divided into primary, containing initial data, and derivatives, containing the results of processing information from other documents. According to their role in the general data processing technology, documents are divided into:
Documents used for the initial loading of the in-machine IS (normative reference and conditionally permanent information);
Documents for entering operational information;
Notifications of changes, periodically received to correct the previously entered information and maintain the in-machine IS up-to-date;
Query documents containing data search conditions and documents that initiate the execution of tasks.
Form of documents. Documents have a permanent part, which is determined by the form (layout, template). The form of the document reflects the structure of the information contained in the document, and determines the composition, name and location of the details included in the document. To identify the structure of information, two parts are important - the heading (header) and the content. Allocate also the formalizing part of the document (signature, etc.).
The header contains the form code, name (type) of the document, date of filling, general data for the entire document.
Technical and economic information is most often discrete, that is, it can be structured and presented as a set of structural units of information:
Attribute - a composite unit of information (a logically interconnected set of details) - a document.
Among the requisites, there are attributes-signs containing the qualitative characteristics of an object, which make it possible to distinguish an object from a variety of different objects, and attributes-bases, containing a quantitative characteristic that determine its state.
Semantic analysis of the details allows us to identify the functional dependence of the details and to carry out on this basis the structuring of information, which makes it possible to build an information-logical model of the subject area and to design the structure of the database.
For the most common types of documents, unified forms can be used, included in unified documentation systems (USD). Many DDs are used for the tasks of national processing systems and are interfaced with a unified classification and coding system (ESKK) of technical and economic information.
Documentation systems include standard and technical conditions, design and engineering and technological, planning, accounting, financial, reporting and statistical documentation, etc.
At industrial enterprises, documentation is regulated by management phases: a unified system for design documentation (ESKD) and a unified system for technological documentation (ESTD), a system of planning documentation, etc.
Each documentation system contains a list of forms of documents permitted for use - a sample form, on the basis of which the forms of documents are determined, normative and methodological materials are developed.
2. Decision support information systems
In any information system (IS), to one degree or another, there are Subsystems (systems) Decision Support (DSS, DSS (Decision Support System)).
DSS can, depending on the data with which they work, be divided into operational, designed for immediate response to the current situation, and strategic - based on the analysis of a large amount of information from different sources with the use of information contained in systems that accumulate experience in solving problems.
DSS of the first type are called Executive Information Systems (ISS). In fact, they are finite sets of reports built on the basis of data from an enterprise transactional information system or OLTP-system (On-line transaction processing), ideally adequately reflecting all aspects of the enterprise production cycle in real time. The ISR has the following main features:
· Reports, as a rule, are based on standard queries for the organization; the number of the latter is relatively small;
· WIS presents reports in the most convenient form, including, along with tables, business graphics, multimedia capabilities, etc .;
· As a rule, IDBs are focused on a specific vertical market, for example, finance, marketing, resource management.
DSS of the second type or involve a sufficiently deep study of data, specially transformed so that it is convenient to use them during the decision-making process. DSS at this level may include the following components:
1.Data Warehouse
2.subsystem for extracting, transforming and loading (importing) data (ETL - Extracting Transformating and Loading)
3. subsystems of analysis (OLAP and Data Mining).
Comparative analysis of OLTP and analysis systems
|
Characteristic |
OLTP requirements |
Analysis systems requirements |
|
|
Granularity of stored data |
Detailed data, individual records are affected |
Detailed and summarized data, queries are performed on large amounts of data using grouping and aggregation |
|
|
Data quality |
Dirty data allowed due to input errors |
Data errors are not allowed |
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|
Data storage format |
Different data format depending on applications |
Single agreed format for data storage |
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|
Redundancy of data |
Maximum normalization |
Denormalization allowed |
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|
Processing time for data access |
Real time mode |
Response is allowed after a few minutes |
|
|
The nature of data queries |
Regulated requests |
Requests to data can be arbitrary and not prepared in advance |
|
|
Data management |
Ability to add, delete, change data |
The ability to add, data |
The information on the basis of which the decision is made must be reliable, complete, consistent and adequate. In the second type of DSS, the traditional technology for preparing integrated information based on queries and reports has become ineffective due to a sharp increase in the amount and variety of source data.
Solution - the concept of a Data Warehouse (CD), which performs the functions of preliminary preparation and storage of data for DSS based on information from an enterprise management system (OLTP system), as well as information from third-party sources that have become available in sufficient quantities on the market information.
All data in HD is divided into three main categories:
1.Detailed data
2.aggregated data
3.metadata
The abbreviation ETL stands for extraction, transformation, loading, that is, extraction, transformation and loading, hiding three main processes used when transferring data from one application or system to others (poster)
The use of the collected data is decided by the analysis subsystems. These subsystems can be based on the following technologies:
Regulated queries (developed even before the appearance of the database concept);
Operational data analysis;
Data mining
OLAP (Online Analytical Processing) - online analytical data processing. The main goal of OLAP-systems is to support arbitrary (not regulated!) Requests from analysts' users.
The 12 defining principles of OLAP were formulated in 1993 by EF Codd, the "inventor" of relational databases. Later, its definition was reworked into the so-called FASMI test, which requires an OLAP application to provide the ability to quickly analyze shared multidimensional information.
Fast - Analysis should be performed equally quickly for all aspects of the information. Acceptable response time is 5 seconds or less.
Analysis - Should be able to perform basic types of numerical and statistical analysis, either predefined by the application developer or arbitrarily defined by the user.
Of Shared - Multiple users must have access to the data, and access to confidential information must be controlled.
Multidimensional is the main, most essential characteristic of OLAP.
Information - the application must be able to access any information it needs, regardless of its size or storage location.
Data Mining- "extraction" of data. This is a method of detecting previously unknown, non-trivial, practically useful and available for interpretation knowledge necessary for decision-making in "raw" data.
DM provides a solution to only five tasks - classification, clustering, regression, association, sequence:
Classification - the establishment of a functional relationship between input and discrete output variables. Classification solves the problem of assigning objects (observations, events) to one of the previously known classes.
Regression is the establishment of a functional relationship between input and continuous output variables. Forecasting most often comes down to solving a regression problem.
Clustering is a grouping of objects (observations, events) based on data (properties) that describe the essence of objects. Objects within a cluster must be "similar" to each other and differ from objects included in other clusters. The more similar the objects within the cluster and the more differences between the clusters, the more accurate the clustering.
Association - identifying dependencies between related events, indicating that event Y follows from event X. Such rules are called associative rules. This problem was first proposed for finding typical shopping patterns in supermarkets, therefore it is sometimes also called market basket analysis.
Sequential Patterns - Establishing patterns between time-related events. For example, after event X, event Y will occur after a certain time.
Sometimes the task of analyzing deviations is specially singled out - the identification of the most uncharacteristic patterns.
Classification is used when the assignment classes of objects are known in advance. For example, assigning a new product to a particular product group, assigning a client to a category. In lending, this can be, for example, attributing a client for some reason to one of the risk groups.
Regression is most often used when forecasting sales volumes, in this case the dependent quantity is sales volumes, and the factors influencing this quantity can be previous sales volumes, changes in the exchange rate, activity of competitors, etc. or, for example, in equipment diagnostics, when the dependence of reliability on various external factors, sensor indicators, and equipment wear is assessed.
Clustering can be used to segment and build customer (customer) profiles. With a sufficiently large number of clients, it becomes difficult to approach each one individually. Therefore, it is convenient to group customers into groups - segments with similar characteristics. Customer segments can be distinguished according to several groups of characteristics. These can be segments by field of activity, by geographic location. After segmentation, you can find out which segments are the most active, which ones bring the greatest profit, and highlight their characteristic features. The efficiency of working with clients is increased by taking into account their personal or group preferences.
Associations help identify jointly acquired goods. This can be useful for more convenient placement of goods on the shelves, sales promotion. Then the person who bought a pack of spaghetti will not forget to buy a bottle of sauce for them.
Consistent templates can be used, for example, in sales planning or service delivery. For example, if a person has purchased a photographic film, then in a week he will give it for development and order the printing of photographs.
To analyze deviations, it is first necessary to build a template for the typical behavior of the object under study. For example, human behavior when using credit cards. Then it will be known that the client (buyer) uses the card regularly twice a month and purchases goods within a certain amount. A deviation will be, for example, not planned purchase of goods for a given card for a large amount. This may indicate its use by another person, that is, about the fact of fraud.
The basic Data Mining methods that allow solving the listed tasks include:
Autocorrelation;
Linear regression;
Logistic regression;
Neural networks;
Forecasting;
Decision trees;
Association rules;
Custom models;
Kohonen cards;
3. Models of management of transmission, processing and storage of data in information systems
As a rule, computers and programs that make up the information system are not equal. Some of them own resources (file system, processor, printer, database, etc.), others have the ability to access these resources. The computer (or program) that manages a resource is called the server of that resource (file server, database server, computing server ...). The client and server of any resource can be located both within the same computer system and on different computers connected by a network.
The basic principle of the "client-server" technology is to divide the functions of the application into three groups:
Data entry and display (user interaction);
Application functions specific to a given subject area;
Resource management functions (file system, database, etc.)
Therefore, in any application, the following components stand out:
Data presentation component
Application component
Resource management component
Communication between components is carried out according to certain rules, which are called "communication protocol".
The information technology research company Gartner Group has proposed the following classification of two-tier client-server interaction models (these are called two-tier models because the three components of an application are distributed differently between the two nodes):
Historically, the first to appear was the distributed data presentation model, which was implemented on a universal computer with non-intelligent terminals connected to it. Data management and interaction with the user were combined in one program, only the "picture" generated on the central computer was transmitted to the terminal.
Then, with the advent of personal computers (PCs) and local networks, models of access to a remote database were implemented. For some time, the basic architecture for PC networks was the file server architecture. In this case, one of the computers is a file server; the clients run applications in which the presentation component and the application component (DBMS and application program) are combined. In this case, the exchange protocol is a set of low-level calls to file system operations. This architecture, which is usually implemented using personal DBMS, has obvious drawbacks - high network traffic and lack of unified access to resources.
With the advent of the first dedicated database servers, it became possible to implement a different implementation of the remote database access model. In this case, the DBMS kernel operates on the server, the exchange protocol is provided using the SQL language. This approach, in comparison with a file server, leads to a decrease in network load and a unification of the client-server interface. However, the network traffic remains quite high, and it is still impossible to administer the applications satisfactorily because different functions are combined in one program.
Later, the concept of an active server was developed, which used the mechanism of stored procedures. This allowed a part of the application component to be transferred to the server (distributed application model). Procedures are stored in a database dictionary, shared among multiple clients, and executed on the same computer as the SQL server. The advantages of this approach: centralized administration of application functions is possible, network traffic is significantly reduced (since not SQL queries are transmitted, but calls to stored procedures). The disadvantage is the limited development tools for stored procedures compared to general-purpose languages (C and Pascal).
In practice, a mixed approach is now commonly used:
The simplest application functions are performed by stored procedures on the server
More complex ones are implemented on the client directly in the application program
Today, when creating an IS, the concept of a "thin client" is popular, the function of which remains only to display data (a model of remote data presentation). This concept is based on the development of MS Active Server Pages (ASP), the main goal of which is to create server scripts embedded in Web pages. The use of this technology allows you to use code snippets in the standard text of HTML pages that will be executed directly on the Web server. In this case, the user will be presented with the ASP Web page formed on the basis of the above actions.
Recently, there has also been a trend towards more and more use of the distributed application model. A characteristic feature of such applications is the logical division of the application into two or more parts, each of which can be executed on a separate computer. Dedicated parts of the application interact with each other by exchanging messages in a pre-agreed format. In this case, the two-tier client-server architecture becomes three-tier, and in some cases, it can include more tiers.
4. Basic concepts of the relational data model
informational relational document
The model is based on a set of interconnected tables that store data.
Database schema - a set of table headers interconnected with each other
Relationship header - table header - names of fields (columns) of the table
Relationship body - table body - a set of values for all objects of the real world, which is presented in the form of table records (table rows)
Relationship Scheme - Column Headers Row
Relationship tuple - table row, unambiguous representation of a real world object
Domain - the set of valid attribute values
Ratio degree - the number of columns of the relation
Cardinality of the ratio is the number of rows (TRUCKS)
Data integrity is a mechanism for keeping a database consistent with a domain. The relational data model defines two basic integrity requirements:
l entity integrity - each tuple of any relationship must be different from any other tuple of this relationship (i.e., any relationship must have a primary key). Obviously, if this requirement is not met (that is, tuples within the same relationship are not unique), then the database may store conflicting information about the same object. Maintaining the integrity of entities is provided by means of a database management system (DBMS). This is done using two constraints:
1. when adding records to the table, the uniqueness of their primary keys is checked;
2. it is not allowed to change the values of the attributes included in the primary key.
l integrity of links (referential integrity).
Along with primary keys, relationships have foreign keys. If relationship C links relationships A and B, then it must include foreign keys corresponding to the primary keys of relationships A and B.
The referential integrity condition poses the following database design problems:
it is possible or impossible for undefined values to appear in foreign keys (NULL values are attribute values for missing information);
What happens when you try to remove tuples from a relationship referenced by a foreign key. In this case, the following possibilities exist:
1.the operation is cascading - that is, deleting tuples in a relation results in the deletion of the corresponding tuples in the associated relation;
2. the operation is limited - that is, only those tuples for which there is no related information in another respect are removed. If such information is available, then the deletion cannot be carried out.
What happens when you try to update the primary key of a relationship referenced by some foreign key. In this case, the following possibilities exist:
1.the operation is cascading - that is, when the primary key is updated, the foreign key in the related relationship is updated;
2. the operation is limited - that is, only those primary keys are updated for which there is no other related information associated with it. If such information is available, the update cannot be done.
Normalization is the process of validating and reorganizing entities and attributes in order to satisfy the requirements for a relational data model. Normalization allows you to be sure that each attribute is defined for its essence, significantly reduce the amount of memory for storing information and eliminate anomalies in the organization of data storage. As a result of normalization, a data structure should be created in which information about each fact is stored in only one place. The normalization process boils down to sequential reduction of the data structure to normal forms - formalized requirements for data organization. There are six known normal forms:
b first normal form (1NF);
b second normal form (2NF);
third normal form (3NF);
b Boyes - Codd normal form (enhanced by 3NF);
4th normal form (4NF);
5th normal form (5NF).
In practice, they are usually limited to converting data to third normal form. Normal forms are based on the concept of functional dependence (hereinafter "dependence").
Functional dependence - Attribute In essence E functionally depends on attribute A of entity E, if at any moment of time exactly one value of A corresponds to each value of B, i.e. A uniquely determines B.
Full functional dependence - Attribute In essence E is fully functionally dependent on a number of attributes A of entity E, if B functionally depends on A and does not depend on any contract A.
First normal form (1NF). An entity is in first normal form if and only if all attributes contain atomic values. There should be no repeating groups among the attributes, that is, several values for each instance.
To reduce an entity to first normal form, you should:
l split complex attributes into atomic,
b create a new entity,
transfer all the "duplicate" attributes into it,
ь choose a possible key for a new entity (or create a new key);
b to establish a relationship from the old entity to the new, the Primary key of the old entity will become a foreign key for the new entity.
Second normal form (2NF). An entity is in second normal form if it is in first normal form, and each non-key attribute depends entirely on the primary key (there should be no dependency on a part of the key). The second normal form is only meaningful for entities with a complex primary key.
To reduce an entity to second normal form, you should:
l select attributes that depend only on a part of the primary key, create a new entity;
l put the attributes, depending on the part of the key, in their own (new) entity;
b to establish a connection from the old essence to the new one.
Third normal form (3NF). An entity is in third normal form if it is in second normal form and no non-key attribute depends on another non-key attribute (there should be no interdependency between non-key attributes).
To reduce an entity to third normal form, you should:
l create a new entity and transfer attributes to it with the same dependence on a non-key attribute;
l use the attribute (s) defining this dependence as the primary key of the new entity;
b to establish a connection from a new entity to an old one.
5. The concept and components of information support for control systems. Databases and knowledge. The concept and functions of a database management system
Information support is a set of methods and means for placing and organizing information, including systems: classification and coding; unified systems of documentation, rationalization of workflow and forms of documents; methods of creating an in-machine information base of IS.
Thus, the areas of information support:
1. Out-of-machine sphere (out-of-machine information base and means of organizing and maintaining an out-of-machine information base)
2. Intra-machine sphere (intra-machine information base and means of organizing and maintaining an intra-machine information base)
The out-of-machine information base serves as a source for the formation of the in-machine information base. The most important issues in the preparation of off-machine information support of the subject area are:
ь determination of the composition of documents containing the necessary information to solve user problems;
ь determination of the forms of documents and the structure of information (identification of structural units of information and their interrelationships);
l classification and coding of information processed in the user's tasks;
ь development of instructional and methodological materials for the maintenance of information documents for processing.
The means of organizing and maintaining an off-machine information base include:
1. Systems of classification and coding of information
2. Unified document systems
3. Instructional and methodological materials for maintaining documents
Intra-machine information base includes:
b databases;
l knowledge base;
b separate non-interdependent arrays of input, output and intermediate data stored on a machine medium.
The means of organizing and maintaining the in-machine information base include:
ь software tools for organizing and maintaining an internal machine information base (systems based on the concepts of a database and knowledge bases, software for data input and control, service tools for copying and archiving, user application programs, etc.);
l technological instructions for maintaining an information base on computer media.
Database is an organized collection of data, consisting of interconnected data about objects of a certain subject area, their properties and characteristics.
A knowledge base is an organized body of knowledge related to some subject area, represented by a certain structure.
Data is information of an actual nature that describes objects, processes and phenomena in the subject area, as well as their properties.
Knowledge describes not only individual facts, but also the relationship between them. In a computer, knowledge should be represented by certain data structures that correspond to the development environment of an intelligent information system. By its nature, knowledge is divided into declarative and procedural. Declarative knowledge is a description of facts and phenomena, fixes the presence or absence of such facts, and also includes descriptions of the main connections and patterns in which these facts and phenomena are included. Procedural knowledge is a description of actions that are possible when manipulating facts and phenomena to achieve the intended goals.
A database management system (DBMS) is a software tool designed to organize and maintain logically interrelated data on an external medium, as well as providing access to data.
The intelligent information system is based on the concept of using knowledge bases to generate algorithms for solving applied problems of various classes, depending on the specific information needs of users.
The functions of the DBMS include the following (to the lecture on DBMS):
l data management directly in the database - a function that provides storage of data directly included in the database and service information that ensures the operation of the DBMS;
l data management in computer memory is a function primarily associated with the fact that the DBMS work with a large database. In order to speed up the work of the DBMS, data buffering in the computer's RAM is used. In this case, the user receives only the part of the database necessary for his specific task, and, if necessary, receives a new "portion" of data;
transaction management is a DBMS function that performs a number of operations on the database as a whole. A transaction is a sequence of operations on a database, considered by the DBMS as a whole. The transaction transfers the database from one coherent state to another.
management of changes in the database and logging - a function related to the reliability of data storage, that is, the ability of the DBMS to restore the state of the database in emergency situations, for example, in case of an accidental power off or failure of the storage medium. To restore a database, you need to have additional information on which to restore. For this purpose, a protocol of changes to the database is kept, in which a corresponding record is made before manipulating the data. To restore the database after a DBMS failure, a protocol and an archive copy of the database are used - a complete copy of the database by the time the protocol starts filling.
l Database language support - special languages are used to work with the database, in general, they are called database languages. A DBMS usually maintains a single language that contains all the necessary tools - from creating a database to providing a user interface when working with data. The most widespread DBMS language at present is the SQL (Structured Query Language) language.
6. The concept and components of the information system (IS). IP life cycle models. Classes of problems solved by IS
An information system (in the context of management) is a communication system for the collection, transmission, processing of information to implement the management function
An information system (IS) usually includes the following components:
1. functional components;
2. components of the data and knowledge processing system;
3. organizational components.
Functional components are understood as a system of management functions - a complete set of interrelated in time and space management works necessary to achieve management goals.
Data and knowledge processing systems are intended for information service of the control system. The components of this system are: information support, software, hardware, legal support, linguistic support.
The selection of the organizational component is due to the special significance of the human factor. The organizational components of the IS is understood as a set of methods and means that make it possible to improve the organizational structure of the management system and management functions.
The life cycle of an IP is defined as the period of time that begins from the moment a decision is made on the need to create an IP and ends at the time of its withdrawal from service.
Under life cycle model a structure is understood that determines the sequence of execution and the relationship of processes, actions and tasks performed during the life cycle. The life cycle model depends on the specifics of the IS and the specifics of the conditions in which the latter is created and functions.
By now, the following basic life cycle models are most widely used: task model, waterfall model, spiral model.
When developing a bottom-up system from individual tasks to the entire system (task model), a unified approach to development is inevitably lost, problems arise in the informational docking of individual components. As a rule, as the number of tasks increases, the difficulties grow, you have to constantly change existing programs and data structures. The rate of development of the system slows down, which also slows down the development of the organization itself. However, in some cases, this technology may be appropriate:
Extreme urgency (you need to somehow solve the problems; then you have to do everything again);
Experiment and customer adaptation (algorithms are not clear, solutions are groped by trial and error).
General conclusion: it is impossible to create a sufficiently large effective IS in this way.
Consider the waterfall and spiral models:
It is customary to distinguish the following stages of the IS life cycle: analysis, design, implementation, implementation, maintenance.
7. Waterfall model of life cycle Spiral model of life cycle
The benefits of using the waterfall approach are as follows:
ь at each stage, a complete set of project documentation is formed that meets the criteria for completeness and consistency;
The stages of work performed in a logical sequence allow you to plan the timing of completion of all work and the corresponding costs.
However, in the process of using the cascade approach, a number of its shortcomings are revealed, primarily caused by the fact that the real process of creating an IS never fully fits into such a rigid scheme. In the process of creating a system, there is a constant need to return to previous stages and clarify or revise previously made decisions. To overcome the listed problems, a spiral life cycle model was proposed, focusing on the initial stages of the IS life cycle: analysis and design.
At these stages, the feasibility of technical solutions is verified by prototyping. Each turn of the spiral corresponds to the creation of a fragment or version of the system, on it the goals and characteristics of the project are specified, its quality is determined, and the work of the next turn of the spiral is planned. Thus, the details of the project are deepened and consistently specified, and as a result, a reasonable option is selected, which is brought to implementation.
The first type of prototypes is a graphical model of a system (for example, a DFD model) that can be understood by users.
The second type of prototype is screen mock-ups that allow you to match database fields and user-specific functions.
The third type of prototypes is working screen forms, i.e. already partially programmed. This allows you to try out the program in action. As a rule, this triggers a new stream of comments and suggestions.
In accordance with the stages of the IS life cycle, several categories of specialists providing this life cycle can be distinguished: system analysts, programmers, users-specialists in a specific subject area.
The tasks solved by the IS can be reduced to a number of typical ones:
1. Management - translation and maintenance of the system in the required state;
2. Forecast - determination of the future process by its past and present;
3. Optimization - finding solutions that minimize or maximize a certain criterion of quality under given constraints;
4. Classification of images - determination of the belonging of objects to one or more predefined classes;
5. Clustering - dividing objects into pre-defined classes according to any criteria;
6. Approximation of functions - estimation of the unknown dependence from experimental data.
Data processing of the relational model can be implemented using relational algebra methods.
Relational algebra, defined by Codd, contains 8 operations, divided into two groups:
1. Theoretical - multiple operations - union, intersection, subtraction and Cartesian product.
2. Special relational operations - selection, projection, join, division
Set-theoretic operations
A relational operator is a function that takes a relationship as arguments and returns a relationship as a result.
R = f (R1, R2… .. Rn)
Other relational operators of a suitable type can be supplied as arguments to relational operators.
R = f (f1 (R11, R21… .. Rn1), f2 (R21, R22… .. R2n)….)
Because of this, relational algebra is closed.
Relationships are said to be type-compatible if they have identical headers, namely:
1.relationships have the same set of attribute names, i.e. for any attribute in one relation there is an attribute with the same name in another relation.
2. attributes with the same name are defined on the same domains.
Some relationships are not type-compatible, but become type-compatible after the attributes are renamed.
Rename operator R rename A1, A2, ... as new A1, new A2 ...,
For instance:
R rename student as starosta
An association
The union of two type compatible relations is a relation with the same heading as in R1 and R2, and a body that includes all operand tuples, except for repeated ones.
Syntax R1 union R2
An association
Operators do not pass any potential key data to the result.
Crossing
The intersection of two type-compatible relations R1 and R2 is a relation with the same heading as the relations R1 and R2, and a body consisting of tuples belonging simultaneously to both relations R1 and R2.
Syntax
Subtraction
The subtraction of two type-compatible relations R1 and R2 is a relation with the same heading as the relations R1 and R2, and a body consisting of tuples belonging to the relation R1 and not belonging to R2.
Syntax R1 minus R2
Cartesian product
The Cartesian product of two relations R1 (R11, R12, R13 ...) and R2 (R21, R22, R23, ...) is a relation, the title of which is the concatenation of the title of the relations R1 and R2:
(R11, R12, R13 ... R21, R22, R23, ...), and the body consists of tuples, which are concatenation of tuples of relations R1 and R2
(r11, r12, r13… r21, r22, r23….) such that (r11, r12, r13…) belongs to R1, and (r21, r22, r23….) belongs to R2 /
R1 times R2 syntax
The power of the product is equal to the product of the powers. If the attributes R1 and R2 have attributes with the same name, then such attributes must be renamed before performing the Cartesian product operation. No type compatibility required.
Special relational operators
Sampling (limitation, selection)
The sample is called a horizontal slice of the relationship according to some condition.
A selection on a relation R with condition C is a relation with the same heading as that of the relation R, and a body consisting of tuples whose attribute values, when substituted into condition C, give the value TRUE.
Typically, condition C is of the form R11 R12, where belongs (=), and R11 and R12 are attributes of the relationship R or scalar values. Such samples are called samples.
Syntax R where C or R where R11 R12
Sample R where scholarship> 250
Projection
The projection of a relation R by attributes R1, R1, R1… Rn, where each attribute belongs to R, is a relation with a title (R1, R2, R3… Rn) and a body containing a set of tuples of the form (r1, r2, r3,… rn). This removes duplicate tuples.
The projection is called the vertical slice of the relationship.
R syntax
R [faculty]
Compound
Several flavors of the join operation are commonly considered.
General join operation
Compound
Equi connection
Natural connection
The most important of these operations is the natural join operation. Since the rest of the join types are special cases of the general join operation.
General join operation:
By condition, the connection of the relations R1 and R2 is the relation
(R1 times R2) where C, where C is a Boolean expression that can include the R1 and R2 relationship attributes and / or scalar expressions. That is, in order to perform a join operation, it is necessary to perform a Cartesian product and a selection sequentially. If there are attributes with the same names in the relationship R1 and R2, then these attributes must be renamed before performing the join.
Compound
(R1 times R2) where R11R21 - -connection of the R1 relation by the R11 attribute with the R2 relation by the R21 attribute. Write down and
What exams must be taken by students who complete the academic year
R1 [semester<=2*курс]R2
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Equi connection is a connection when there is equality.
Natural connection
Let the relations R1 (R11, R12, R13, .. R1n, Z1, Z2,… Zn) and R2 (Z1, Z2,… Zn, R21, R22, R23, .., R2m) be given. Then the natural connection of relations R1 and R2 is a relation with a title (R11, R12, R13, .. R1n, Z1, Z2, ... Zn, R21, R22, R23, .., R2m) and a body containing a set of tuples (r11, r12 , r13,… r1n, z1, z2, z3,… zn, r21, r22,… r2m) such that (r11, r12, r13,… r1n, z1, z2, z3,… zn) belongs to R1, and (z1 , z2, z3,… zn, r21, r22,… r2m) belongs to R2
Syntax
The connection is made using the same attributes.
R1 join R2 join R3
The division operation has two operands, binary and unary. The resulting relation consists of single-attribute tuples, including the values of the first attribute of the tuples of the first relation operand, such that the set of values of the second attribute coincides with the set of values of the single attribute of the second operand-relation.
R1 divideby R2 syntax
The SQL language is designed to work with databases that partially or completely use the relational data model. The language is developed on the basis of relational algebra and belongs to non-procedural programming languages (you can define what needs to be done, not how to do it). Language operates with relations, and as a result of language instructions, a relation is obtained.
The first language standard was developed in 1989 by the US National Standards Institute (ANSI). In 1992, there was a version of SQL92, in 1999, SQL3. Today, there are different types of dialects that extend the language standard.
There are two forms of language:
Interactive - creating queries in dialogue mode
Built-in - language instructions that are embedded inside programs written in another language (for example, when developing applications that process data located in a database).
Consider an interactive form.
Language command types
DDl - data definition language
CREATE TABLE, ALTER TABLE, DROP TABLE, CREATE VIEW, ALTER VIEW, DROP VIEW, CREATE INDEX, DROP INDEX
DML - Data Manipulation Language
INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE
DQL - data query language
DCL - data management language, or data administration commands
CREATE DATABASE, ALTER DATABASE, DROP DATABASE, GRANT (granting access rights for actions on specified database objects), REVOKE (revoking access rights for actions on specified database objects), etc.
Data administration commands - provide the ability to audit and analyze operations within the database. Can be used to analyze the performance of the data system as a whole.
START AUDIT, STOP AUDIT
Transaction management commands - allow you to process the information combined into a transaction
COMMIT, ROLLBACK, SAVE POINT, SET TRANSACTION (assign transaction name)
Procedural language
DECLARE, OPEN, FETCH, CLOSE, EXECUTE, etc.
8. Structural domain model
A domain model is understood as a certain system that imitates the structure or functioning of the studied domain and meets the basic requirement - to be adequate to this domain.
The following requirements are imposed on domain models:
· Formalization, providing an unambiguous description of the structure of the subject area;
· Comprehensibility for customers and developers based on the use of graphic means of displaying the model;
· Realizability, implying the availability of means of physical implementation of the domain model in IS;
· Providing an assessment of the effectiveness of the implementation of the domain model based on certain methods and calculated indicators.
To implement the listed requirements, as a rule, a system of models is built that reflects the structural and evaluative aspects of the functioning of the subject area.
The structural aspect involves the construction of:
· The object structure, reflecting the composition of the material and information objects of the subject area interacting in the processes;
· Functional structure, reflecting the relationship of functions (actions) to transform objects in processes;
· A governance structure that reflects events and business rules that affect the execution of processes;
· Organizational structure, reflecting the interaction of organizational units of the enterprise and personnel in the processes;
· A technical structure that describes the topology of the location and communication methods of the complex of technical means.
To display the structural aspect of domain models, graphical methods are mainly used, which must guarantee the presentation of information about the components of the system. The main requirement for graphical documentation methods is simplicity. Graphical methods should provide the possibility of structural decomposition of system specifications with the maximum degree of detail and agreement of descriptions at adjacent decomposition levels
Various methodologies for modeling the IP domain are based on the principles of sequential detailing of abstract categories. Typically, models are built at three levels: the external level (requirements definition), the conceptual level (requirements specification), and the internal level (requirements implementation). So, at the external level, the model answers the question of what the system should do, that is, the composition of the main components of the system is determined: objects, functions, events, organizational units, technical means. Conceptually, the model answers the question of how the system should function? In other words, the nature of the interaction of system components of the same and different types is determined. At the internal level, the model answers the question: what software and hardware means are used to implement the system requirements? From the standpoint of the IS life cycle, the described levels of models are respectively built at the stages of requirements analysis, logical (technical) and physical (working) design. Consider the features of building domain models at three levels of detail.
Object structure
An object is an entity that is used when performing some functions or operations (transformation, processing, formation, etc.).
At the external level of detail of the model, the main types of material objects (for example, raw materials and materials, semi-finished products, finished products, services) and the main types of information objects or documents (for example, orders, invoices, invoices, etc.) are highlighted.
At the conceptual level of building a domain model, the composition of object classes is specified, their attributes and relationships are determined. Thus, a generalized representation of the structure of the subject area is built.
Further, the conceptual model at the internal level is displayed in the form of database files, input and output EIS documents. Moreover, dynamic objects are represented by units of variable information or documents, and static objects - by units of conditionally constant information in the form of lists, nomenclatures, price tags, reference books, classifiers. The database model as a constantly maintained information resource reflects the storage of conditionally constant and accumulated variable information used in repetitive information processes.
Functional structure
A function (operation) is some kind of converter of input objects into output objects.
The external modeling layer defines a list of core business functions or business process types. Usually there are 15-20 such functions.
At the conceptual level, the selected functions are decomposed and hierarchies of interrelated functions are built.
At the internal level, the structure of the information process in the computer is displayed: hierarchical structures of software modules that implement automated functions are determined.
Managment structure
Events call the execution of functions, which, in turn, change the states of objects and form new events, etc., until some business process is completed.
At the external level, a list of external events caused by the interaction of an enterprise with the external environment (payments of taxes, interest on loans, deliveries under contracts, etc.) inventory, product quality level, etc.).
At the conceptual level, business rules are established that determine the conditions for calling functions when events occur and when object states are reached.
Internally, business rules are formalized in the form of triggers or calls to program modules.
Organizational structure
Organizational structure is a collection of organizational units, usually linked by hierarchical and process relationships. An organizational unit is a unit that is an association of people (personnel) to perform a set of common functions or business processes.
At the external level, a structural model of an enterprise is built in the form of a hierarchy of subordination of organizational units or lists of interacting divisions.
At the conceptual level, for each department, the organizational and staff structure of positions (personnel roles) is set.
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8 Intra-machine IO Intra-machine IO is a system of specially organized data subject to automated processing, accumulation, storage, search and transmission in a form convenient for perception by technical means. Intra-machine IO Information arrays (files) Databases and data banks, information storages Knowledge bases
9 IO tasks and methods of their solution Unambiguous and economical presentation of information in the system Organization of procedures for analysis and processing of information taking into account the nature of connections between objects Organization of user interaction with the system Ensuring effective use of information in the control loop of the automation object Coding objects Classification of objects Screen input / output forms data Unified documentation systems
10 Requirements for IO Providing complete, reliable and timely information for the implementation of economic calculations and management decisions. Providing complete, reliable and timely information for the implementation of economic calculations and management decisions. Minimization of costs for the procedures for collecting, storing, searching, processing and transmitting information. Minimization of costs for the procedures for collecting, storing, searching, processing and transmitting information. Ensuring mutual coordination of the tasks of functional subsystems based on an unambiguous formalized description of their inputs and outputs at the level of indicators and documents. Ensuring mutual coordination of the tasks of functional subsystems based on an unambiguous formalized description of their inputs and outputs at the level of indicators and documents.
13 Requisites Subdivision code Subdivision name Number of employees 001 Chief technologist's department Chief mechanic's department Chief engineer's department 20 Requisite form Content of requisite Requisite attribute Base attribute Nomenclature
14 Indicators An indicator is a logical statement containing the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the control object. The indicator is formed by combining one base variable and all related attribute attributes. The set of indicators forms an information message (document). The indicator is the minimum information set for the formation of an independent document.
15 Example of indicator Indicator “Number of employees” Formulation: in March 2010, the department of the chief technologist employed 25 people. The structure of the indicator Form of the requisite MonthYearDivisionQuantity of the content of the requisite March 2010 Department of the chief technologist 25 Requisites-attributes
16 Information units of the top level A group of homogeneous documents constitutes an information array. A group of homogeneous documents constitutes an information array. Arrays on a semantic basis can be combined into information streams used in solving various complexes of control problems. Arrays on a semantic basis can be combined into information streams used in solving various complexes of control problems. Information flow - a set of transferred data related to a specific area of economic calculations (information flow characterizing product output). Information flow - a set of transferred data related to a specific area of economic calculations (information flow characterizing product output).
17
18 Information units of the top level A group of homogeneous documents constitutes an information array. A group of homogeneous documents constitutes an information array. Arrays on a semantic basis can be combined into information streams used in solving various complexes of control problems. Arrays on a semantic basis can be combined into information streams used in solving various complexes of control problems. Information flow - a set of transferred data related to a specific area of economic calculations (information flow characterizing product output). Information flow - a set of transferred data related to a specific area of economic calculations (information flow characterizing product output). Information subsystem - the combination of information flows in relation to information to a particular control function. Information subsystem - the combination of information flows in relation to information to a particular control function. Information system is an association of information subsystems that covers all information of an economic object. Information system is an association of information subsystems that covers all information of an economic object.
19 The procedure for designing an IO 1) Determination of the composition of indicators necessary for solving economic problems, their volume-time characteristics and information links 2) Identifying the possibility of using a unified documentation system for reflecting indicators 3) Classification and coding of technical and economic information of the control object, studying the possibility of using national classifiers 4) Designing forms of primary and final documents, adapted to the requirements of machine processing 5) Organization of the information base - defining the structure of the database, designing forms for outputting processing results.
20 Systems of economic indicators A system of indicators is a set of interrelated socio-economic and technical-economic indicators used to solve AEIS problems. The system of indicators serves as the basis for constructing the elements of the out-of-machine and in-machine IO. The system of indicators determines the content of management documents and information arrays.
22 Classification of indicator systems Attribute Indicator systems Indicators By management level Corporation Indicators of the securities market, exchange business Enterprise Indicators of the commodity market, indicators of the quality of manufactured products Subdivision Indicators of labor productivity, labor intensity By functional subsystems CCI subsystem Indicators of consumption rates of materials, norms of time and labor input of production Quality management subsystem Indicators of product quality standards, indicators of material incentives Subsystem of staffing Indicators of accounting and analysis of the number of personnel, use of working time, staff turnover
23 Classification of indicator systems Attribute Indicator systems Indicators By management function Planning Indicators of a business plan, volume of products sold, payments to the budget, volume of capital investments Accounting Indicators of operational accounting indicators of production and shipment of products, receipt and expenditure of materials Accounting indicators Indicators contained in the chart of accounts accounting Indicators of statistical accounting Indicators contained in uniform forms of statistical reporting Analysis Indicators of external analysis Indicators of the property status of the enterprise, its financial stability and solvency, relations with external organizations Indicators of internal analysis Indicators of the efficiency of the enterprise (profit, capital turnover, competitiveness) Control and regulation Planned and actual indicators of profit, sales volume, labor productivity, quality of goods
24 Classification of indicator systems Attribute Indicator systems Indicators Calculation of economic efficiency Quantitative indicators Volume of production, profit, profitability, labor intensity and cost savings Qualitative indicators Science intensity of products, qualifications of workers, indicators of social efficiency Exercise: select indicators from any official document, determine the composition of their details, specify details - signs and requisites - grounds.
25 Documentation systems A document is a material medium containing information in a fixed form, drawn up in accordance with the established procedure and having legal significance in accordance with the legislation. A document is a tangible medium containing information in a fixed form, drawn up in the prescribed manner and having legal significance in accordance with the legislation. For the rational organization of information flows, documents must be classified. For the rational organization of information flows, documents must be classified. Documentation system - a set of all documents interconnected according to the characteristics: Documentation system - a set of all documents interconnected according to the characteristics: origin, origin, purpose, purpose, type, type, field of activity, field of activity, uniform requirements for their registration. uniform requirements for their design.
26 Types of documentation systems organizational and legal documentation; organizational and legal documentation; planned; planned; administrative; administrative; reporting; reporting; staffing documentation; staffing documentation; financial documentation; financial documentation; logistics documentation; logistics documentation; contractual documentation; contractual documentation; documentation reflecting the main activities of an organization or enterprise. documentation reflecting the main activities of an organization or enterprise.
27 Unified Documentation System The Unified Documentation System (USD) is a complex of interrelated standard forms of documents and rules for their execution based on the use of computer technology. The Unified Documentation System (USD) is a complex of interrelated standard forms of documents and rules for their execution based on the use of computer technology. The objectives of creating the USD: The objectives of creating the USD: Ensuring economic efficiency and a guaranteed level of information quality at all stages of document processing. Ensuring economic efficiency and a guaranteed level of information quality at all stages of document processing. Improvement and reduction of the variety of content and forms of documents. Improvement and reduction of the variety of content and forms of documents. USDS establishes general requirements for the development of all documents and their content, includes forms of documents, state standards and methodological materials regulating the procedure for drawing up, agreeing and approving documents. USDS establishes general requirements for the development of all documents and their content, includes forms of documents, state standards and methodological materials regulating the procedure for drawing up, agreeing and approving documents.
28 Requirements for USD The documents that are part of the USD must be developed taking into account their use in the system of interconnected EIS; The documents that are part of the USD should be developed taking into account their use in the system of interconnected EIS; The USD must contain complete information necessary for optimal control of the object for which this system is being developed; The USD must contain complete information necessary for optimal control of the object for which this system is being developed; USD should be focused on the use of computer technology for collecting, processing and transmitting information; USD should be focused on the use of computer technology for collecting, processing and transmitting information; DRC should ensure information compatibility of EIS of different levels; DRC should ensure information compatibility of EIS of different levels; all documents that are part of the developed USD, and all requisites-signs in them must be encoded using international, system-wide or local classifiers. all documents that are part of the developed USD, and all requisites-signs in them must be encoded using international, system-wide or local classifiers.
29 Requirements for USD The documents that are part of the USD must be developed taking into account their use in the system of interconnected EIS; The documents that are part of the USD should be developed taking into account their use in the system of interconnected EIS; The USD must contain complete information necessary for optimal control of the object for which this system is being developed; The USD must contain complete information necessary for optimal control of the object for which this system is being developed; USD should be focused on the use of computer technology for collecting, processing and transmitting information; USD should be focused on the use of computer technology for collecting, processing and transmitting information; DRC must ensure information compatibility of EIS of different levels; DRC must ensure information compatibility of EIS of various levels; all documents that are part of the developed USD, and all requisites-signs in them must be encoded using international, system-wide or local classifiers. all documents that are part of the developed USD, and all requisites-signs in them must be encoded using international, system-wide or local classifiers. At the heart of the creation of USD is the method of unification - the establishment of uniformity in the composition and forms of management documents created when solving the same type of management functions and tasks.
30 Directions of unification Unification of structure Unification of content Unification of design the presence of three parts of the document; the presence of three parts of the document; the general composition of the details of the heading and design parts; the general composition of the details of the heading and design parts; standard sizes of media and document margins; standard sizes of media and document margins; location of the details of the document. location of the details of the document. use of standardized professional vocabulary; use of standardized professional vocabulary; compliance with the requirements of business style; compliance with the requirements of business style; compliance with the requirements for the identification of documents and ensuring their legal force. compliance with the requirements for the identification of documents and ensuring their legal force. ergonomic characteristics of documents; ergonomic characteristics of documents; informativeness of data presentation forms; informativeness of data presentation forms; uniformity of execution of the same type of documents. uniformity of execution of the same type of documents.
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34 Unified system of organizational and administrative documentation GOST R “Unified documentation systems. System of organizational and administrative documents. Requirements for paperwork "GOST R" Unified documentation systems. System of organizational and administrative documents. Requirements for paperwork ”Organizational documents include regulatory documents governing the legal status of an organization and its structural divisions, rules and instructions. Organizational documents include regulatory documents governing the legal status of an organization and its structural divisions, rules and instructions. Administrative documentation refers to the documentation in which decisions of administrative and organizational issues of the management object are recorded. Administrative documentation refers to the documentation in which decisions of administrative and organizational issues of the management object are recorded. Reference documents provide information that prompts certain management decisions. Reference documents provide information that prompts certain management decisions.
36 Primary documents contain initial data of organizations and enterprises. Primary documents contain initial data of organizations and enterprises. The resulting documents contain general information, therefore they are used to make management decisions. The resulting documents contain general information, therefore they are used to make management decisions. The document is the basis for making management decisions
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41 Requirements for primary documents 1. Reliable data on the state of the economic object. 2. Sufficient amount of initial data to obtain the maximum result information. 3.Minimum of the details of the document due to the exclusion of normative, pricing, reference, and derived data from it.
42 The procedure for the development of primary documents 1) the composition of the details included in the document is specified (their composition must meet the objectives of management); 2) the details that are subject to automated processing are highlighted; 3) a sketch is drawn up, defining the order of construction and location of the details; 4) the approved forms of documents are replicated and introduced into the IS.
43 Requirements for deliverables 1. The composition of the indicators contained in them should be sufficient for management purposes. 2. The data must be reliable, and their location of requisites must be logically justified. 3. The frequency of issuance of result documents should correspond to the economic task - the summaries should be issued by the specified date, in a routine mode or when responding to a request. 4. Output documents must have a unified form.
44 The procedure for the development of forms of outcome documents 1) the composition of the outcome documents required by this organization is determined; 2) the possibility of obtaining standard result documents is being studied; 3) as necessary, the standard forms of the resulting documents are linked to specific conditions; 4) the composition of indicators calculated using VT is determined; 5) the indicators are distributed according to the result documents in a certain sequence, taking into account the information arrays used; 6) each result document is given its own name; 7) a sketch of the form of the final document is developed, taking into account the operational capabilities of the computer.
45 Example of information element descriptions Variable name Identifier Data type Bit depth Client code Code_klient Numeric4 Client name Name_klient Text 20 Date of call Time_advice Time / date8 Debt DebtBoolean1
47 The composition of the ED form Fields with constant details that do not change among copies of a document of the same type (company name). Fields with variable attributes, the values of which can be filled either manually or automatically. Automatically filled fields: calculated fields by connecting standard statistical, mathematical, logical, financial functions or macros, calculated fields using standard statistical, mathematical, logical, financial functions or macros, automatically filled fields from databases or reference books. automatically filled fields from a database or reference books. Control buttons designed to initiate more complex calculations or send a document along a route. Fields for marks that are set in the document during its viewing. Fields with electronic signatures.
49 Designing the user interface 1. Designing the structure (appearance) of the ED form. 2. Designing the content of the ED form (defining a list of elements and choosing ways to fill them out). 3. Determination of the sequence of forms of ED. 4. Establishing links between forms of ED. 5. Approbation of ED forms and their filling.
54 Information base Information base (IB) is the main part of the in-machine IO. An information base is a collection of data organized in a certain way and stored in the memory of a computer system in the form of files, with the help of which the information needs of the control apparatus and functional subsystems of the IS are satisfied. The concepts of arrays and files are inseparable from each other - arrays contain information, and files organize its storage.
55 Classification of IS files By semantic content (software and data arrays) By semantic content (software and data arrays) By processing stages (input, output (result), internal (basic)) By processing stages (input, output (result), internal (basic)) By the composition of information (files with operational information, files with permanent information) By the composition of information (files with operational information, files with permanent information) By the type of logical organization (files with a hierarchical and relational structure of records) By the type of logical organization ( files with a hierarchical and relational structure of recording) By physical organization (files with sequential, index and direct access) By physical organization (files with sequential, index and direct access)
57 Types of arrays by processing stages Type of arrays Purpose and content Input Contains initial and current data, requests for solving problems and executing processes. Designed to enter data or update base files. Output (result) Contains a set of indicators necessary for the formation of reporting and decision-making in the subsequent period. Internal (basic) Contains reference, regulatory, service information. Designed for processing information from input arrays and generating output arrays.
58 Types of arrays by technology of use. Type of arrays Purpose and characteristics. Permanent Formed prior to the commencement of the functioning of the IS. Contains directive, normative, reference and other rarely changing data. Variables (operational) Formed from primary documents. Contains current information about the state of the control object. Auxiliary (working) Are the result of logical transformations of constant arrays. They are created to solve specific problems in order to reduce the time for processing information. Intermediate Contains information arising at the junction of various tasks. They have no independent meaning for the purposes of object management. Archive Are formed based on the output arrays. Designed to store information necessary for processing in future reporting periods, for solving analytical, forecasting tasks. Utility Contains information required to process all of the above-mentioned arrays. Designed to speed up the search for information in the main files.
59 Requirements for in-machine IO Completeness, integrity, consistency and consistency of stored information. Completeness, integrity, consistency and consistency of stored information. Minimization of data sampling time when solving control problems. Minimization of data sampling time when solving control problems. The independence of the structure of the arrays from the software of their organization. The independence of the structure of the arrays from the software of their organization. The dynamism of the information security structure. The dynamism of the information security structure. Relevance of information security. Relevance of information security. Convenience of the language interface. Convenience of the language interface. Differentiation of user access rights. Differentiation of user access rights.
60 Methods of organizing information security Supported by functional packages of application programs Based on the use of universal software tools for loading, storing, searching and maintaining data (DBMS). Information base Collection of local files Integrated database
61 Peculiarities of file-by-file organization of IO Specialization of data structure for the tasks being solved; high speed of data processing. Specialization of the data structure for the tasks being solved; high speed of data processing. Establishing a connection between files is not provided, work in a dialogue is excluded. Establishing a connection between files is not provided, work in a dialogue is excluded. It is used when solving highly specialized tasks with a small amount of data stored in separate files. It is used when solving highly specialized tasks with a small amount of data stored in separate files.
62 Disadvantages of the file-based organization of the in-machine IO Dependence of programs on data (the structure of the file record is known only to the program that works with it) The complexity of authorization (a decentralized principle of access control is adopted, when the administration of the access mode to each file is carried out by its owner) The complexity of the implementation of multi-user access (effective multi-user access is possible only in file reading mode)
63 Organization of IO in the form of a database is an integrated set of files that provides storage of information resources, convenient interaction between them and quick access to data. A database is an integrated collection of files that provides storage of information resources, convenient interaction between them and quick access to data. Advantages: Advantages: ensuring data compatibility; ensuring data compatibility; reduction of syntactic and semantic redundancy; reduction of syntactic and semantic redundancy; correspondence of data to the real state of the control object; correspondence of data to the real state of the control object; providing multi-user access to data. providing multi-user access to data. Problems: Problems: the need to strengthen control over data entry; the need to strengthen control over data entry; the need to differentiate user access rights; the need to differentiate user access rights; the need to ensure data protection. the need to ensure data protection.
64 Types of DB 1. According to the used data model: Hierarchical; Hierarchical; Network; Network; Relational; Relational; Object oriented. Object oriented. 2. On the organization of data storage and processing technology: Centralized; Centralized; Distributed. Distributed.
