Information processing with the help of computer hardware. Technical means for collecting, processing and issuing information

02.07.2020 Reviews

Main characteristics of PC modules

Personal computers usually consist of the following main modules:

system unit

Power Supply
Motherboard
CPU
Memory

information output devices (monitor)
input devices (keyboard, mouse)
information storage media

Let's take a look at these modules in more detail.

System block (case).

The PC case protects the internal elements of the PC from external influences.

The case includes: Power supply, cables for connecting the motherboard, additional fans.

The number of bays matters to the expandability of the system.

Case types.

Name	Dimensions, height / width / length (cm)	b.p. power, W	Number of compartments	additional characteristics
5,25	3,5
slim line	73545		1-2	1-2	Limited expansion and upgrade options
Desktop	204545	200-250	2-3	1-2	Takes up a lot of space
mini tower	452045	200-250
Midi Tower	502045	200-250			Most common
Big Tower	632045	250-350
File Server	733555	350-400			The most expensive

Power Supply.

The power supply generates different voltages for internal devices and the motherboard. The life of the power supply is 4-7 years, and it can be extended by turning the PC on and off more rarely.

There are three form factors (types) of power supplies and, accordingly, motherboards.

AT - connects to two connectors on the motherboard. Used in old type PCs. Turning the power on and off in them is carried out by a conventional mains switch, which is under mains voltage.
ATX - 1 connector. Included on command from the mat. fees. ATX PSUs work according to the following scheme: at t 0 to 35 0 C, the fan rotates at a minimum speed and is almost inaudible. When t 0 reaches 50 0 C, the fan speed increases to the maximum value and does not decrease until the temperature drops.

ATX standard motherboards are generally not compatible with AT standard power supplies. The case and board must be of the same type.

BTX - has 2 required components:

Thermal balance module that directs fresh air directly to the processor heatsink.
Support module on which the motherboard is installed. The support module is designed to compensate for shocks and shocks to the system, reducing the kinks of the motherboard. Thanks to him, it was possible to increase the maximum allowable weight of the processor heatsink from 450 to 900 grams. In addition, the configuration of the motherboard and the system unit has been significantly changed. Now the hottest PC components are located in the path of air flow, increasing the efficiency of case coolers.

"-" incompatibility with ATX, despite the mechanical and electrical compatibility of the power supplies (400 W, 120 mm fan).

What threatens the PC with insufficient power supply.

In the event of an excessive overload of the power supply unit, the protection circuit will work, and the power supply unit simply will not start. In the worst case, the consequences can be very different, for example, very sad for hard drives. A decrease in the HDD supply voltage is regarded as a shutdown signal and the HDD starts to park the reading heads. When the voltage level is restored, the disk turns on again and starts spinning up.

Unexplained glitches in programs may also occur. A low-quality power supply unit in an emergency can disable the mat. board and video card.

Motherboard

@ Motherboard (system) board is the central part of any computer, which hosts in general CPU, coprocessor, controllers, providing communication between the central processor and peripheral devices, RAM, cache memory, BIOS element(basic I/O system), accumulator battery, crystal clock oscillator and slots(connectors) for connecting other devices. All these modules are connected together using the system bus, which, as we have already found out, is located on the motherboard.

The overall performance of a motherboard is determined not only by clock frequency, but also quantity(bit depth) of data, processed per unit of time central processing unit, as well as bit width of the data exchange bus between different devices motherboard.

The architecture of motherboards is constantly being improved: their functional saturation is increasing, performance is increasing. Embedded devices such as a dual-channel E-IDE controller for HDDs (hard drives), an FDD (floppy) controller, advanced parallel (LPT) and serial (COM) ports, as well as a serial infrared port have become standard on the motherboard. .

@ Port – multi-bit input or output in the device.

COM1, COM2-serial ports that transmit electrical impulses (information) sequentially one after the other (scanner, mouse). They are implemented in hardware using 25-pin and 9-pin connectors, which are brought to the rear panel of the system unit.

LPT- the parallel port has a higher speed, as it transmits 8 electrical impulses at the same time (connect the printer). It is implemented in hardware as a 25-pin connector on the rear panel of the system unit.

USB- (universal serial bus) provides high-speed connection to a PC of several peripheral devices at once (connect flash drives, webcams, external modems, HDD, etc.). This port is universal and can replace all other ports.

^ PS/2- Dedicated keyboard and mouse port.

AGP- accelerated graphics port for connecting a monitor.

The performance of various computer components (processor, RAM, and peripheral controllers) can vary significantly.

^ For speed matching on the motherboard special microcircuits are installed(chipsets) that include a RAM controller (the so-called north bridge) and a peripheral controller ( south bridge).

The northbridge provides information exchange between the processor and RAM on the system highway.

The processor uses internal frequency multiplication, so the processor frequency is several times greater than the system bus frequency. In modern computers, the processor frequency can exceed the system bus frequency by 10 times (for example, the processor frequency is 1 GHz, and the bus frequency is 100 MHz).

Motherboard logic diagram

A PCI bus (Peripheral Component Interconnect bus) is connected to the north bridge, which provides information exchange with peripheral device controllers. (Controller frequency is less than the system bus frequency, for example, if the system bus frequency is 100 MHz, then the PCI bus frequency is usually three times less - 33 MHz.) Peripheral controllers (sound card, network card, SCSI controller, internal modem) are installed to system card expansion slots .

A special AGP bus is used to connect the video card(Accelerated Graphic Port - accelerated graphics port), connected to the north bridge and having a frequency several times greater than the PCI bus.

CPU

In general@ subprocessor understand a device that performs a set of operations on data presented in digital form (binary code).

Applied to Computing@ processor means a central processing unit (CPU) capable of selecting, decoding, and executing instructions, as well as transmitting and receiving information from other devices.

The number of firms that develop and manufacture processors for PCs is small. Currently known: Intel, Cyrix, AMD, NexGen, Texas Instrument.

Structure and functions of the processor:

The structure of the processor can be represented by the following diagram:

1 ) WU - controls the entire course of the computational and logical process in the computer. This is the "brain" of the computer, which controls all its actions. The functions of the CU are to read the next command, recognize it and then connect the necessary electronic circuits and devices to execute it.

2) ALU– performs direct data processing in binary code. ALU can only perform a certain set of simple operations:

Arithmetic operations (+, -, *, /);
Boolean operations(comparison, condition check);
Transfer operations(from one area of RAM to another).

3) Clock generator- sets the rhythm for all operations in the processor by sending one pulse at regular intervals (cycle). It synchronizes the operation of PC devices.

@Tact - this is the time interval between the beginning of the supply of two consecutive pulses of the clock frequency generator. GTS synchronizes the operation of PC nodes.

^4) Coprocessor- allows you to significantly speed up the computer with floating point numbers (we are talking about real numbers, for example, 1.233 * 10 -5). When working with texts, the coprocessor is not used.

5) A modern processor has such a high speed that the information from the RAM does not have time to reach it in a timely manner and the processor is idle. To prevent this from happening, a special microcircuit is built into the processor. memory cache .

@ CACHE - ultra-fast memory designed to store intermediate results of calculations. Has a volume of 128-1024 Kb.

In addition to the specified element base, the processor contains special registers that are directly involved in the processing of commands.

6) Registers- processor memory, or a number of special memory cells.

Registers perform two functions:

short-term storage of a number or command;
perform some operation on them.

The most important processor registers are:

program counter - serves for automatic selection of program commands from consecutive memory cells, it stores the address of the command being executed;
command and status register - serves to store the command code.

The execution of an instruction by the processor is divided into the following stages:

from the memory cell, the address of which is stored in the program counter, a command is selected into the RAM (in this case, the contents of the program counter increase);
from the OP, the command is transferred to the control device (to the command register);
the control device decodes the address field of the command;
by control device signals operands are fetched from memory in ALU (in registers of operands);
The CU decrypts the operation code and issues a signal to the ALU to perform the operation that is performed in the adder;
the result of the operation remains in the processor, or is returned to RAM.

Memory

^ Classification of memory elements.

File system

The order in which files are stored on a disk is determined by the file system used, which directly means the file allocation table, which is stored in 2 instances in the system area of the disk.

At the physical disk level, a file is a sequence of bytes. However, since The smallest unit on a disk is a sector. then it would be possible to understand by the file some sequence of sectors. But in fact, the file is a connected sequence of clusters.

@ cluster is a collection of several adjacent disk sectors (from 1 to several tens).

It is traditionally accepted that a cluster and a sector are one and the same, but they are different things. The cluster size may vary depending on the disk capacity. The larger the disk capacity, the larger the cluster size. The cluster size can vary from 512 bytes to 64 KB.

^ Clusters are needed to reduce the size of the file allocation table.

If the file allocation table is somehow destroyed, then, despite the fact that the data is on disk, it will not be available. In this regard, 2 such tables are stored on disk.

Clusters reduce the size of a table. But here another problem appears. ^ Wasted disk space.

When writing a file to disk, an integer number of clusters will always be occupied.

For example, the file has a size of 1792 bytes, and the cluster size is 512 bytes. In order to save the file, we need 2 full sectors + 256 bytes from the third sector. Thus, 256 bytes will remain free in the third sector. (1792 = 3 * 512 +256);(512*4 = 2048)

^ The remaining bytes in the fourth cluster cannot be used. It is believed that on average there are 0.5 clusters of wasted space for each file, which results in loss of up to 15% of disk space. That is, out of 2 GB of occupied space, 300 MB is lost. As files are deleted, it returns to service.

The file allocation table was first used in the MS-DOS operating system and was called the FAT table (File Allocation Table - File Allocation Table).

^ There are several types of file allocation tables (FAT).

General structure of FAT



						To

In the initial 34th cluster, the address of the 35th cluster is stored, in the 35th the address of the 36th, in the 36th the address of the 53rd, etc. The 55th cluster stores the end-of-file sign.

NTFS file system.

The file system of the UNIX family of operating systems was taken as the basis of the NTFS file system.

Here, the file element consists of two parts: the file name and the inode.

The file is written to disk as follows:

There are 13 blocks in which the addresses of data blocks located on the disk can be written, of which:

11 - indicates an indirect addressing block of 256 data blocks. It is used in cases where the first 10 blocks were not enough to write the addresses of data blocks, i.e. the file is large.

12 - indicates not a block of double indirect addressing (256 * 256), is used when there was not enough space provided to write the addresses of data blocks.

13 – triple addressing block address (256*256*256).

In this way, maximum file size may be up to 16 GB.

This mechanism provides tremendous data security. If in FAT you can simply spoil the tables, then in NTFS you will have to wander between blocks for a long time.

NTFS can shift, even fragment across the disk, all of its service areas, bypassing any surface failures - except for the first 16 MFT elements. The second copy of the first three records is stored exactly in the middle of the disk.

NTFS is a fault-tolerant system that can easily bring itself back to a correct state in the event of almost any real failure. Any modern file system is based on such a concept as transaction - an action performed entirely and correctly or not performed at all.

Example 1: data is written to disk. It suddenly turns out that we couldn't write to the place where we just decided to write the next portion of data - physical damage to the surface. The behavior of NTFS in this case is quite logical: the write transaction is rolled back in its entirety - the system realizes that the write has not been made. The place is marked as failed, and the data is written to another place - a new transaction begins.

Example 2: a more complicated case - data is being written to disk. Suddenly the power goes off and the system reboots. At what phase did the recording stop, where is the data? Another mechanism of the system comes to the rescue - the transaction log, in which the beginning and end of any transaction is marked. The fact is that the system, realizing its desire to write to disk, marked this state in the metafile. When reloading, this file is examined for unfinished transactions that were interrupted by a crash and whose result is unpredictable - all these transactions are canceled: the place that was written to is marked again as free, indexes and MFT elements are brought back to the state in which they were before failure, and the system as a whole remains stable.

^ It is important to understand, however, that the NTFS recovery system guarantees the correctness of the file system,not your data.

In NTFS, each disk is divided into volumes. Each volume contains its own MFT (File Table) which can be located anywhere on the disk within the volume.

HDD content

1. Magnetic disk is a round plate made of aluminum (in rare cases of special glass), the surface of which is processed to the highest class of accuracy. There can be several such magnetic disks from 1 to 4. To give the plates magnetic properties, their surface is coated with an alloy based on chromium, cobalt or a ferromagnet. This coating has a high hardness. Each side of the disk has its own number.

^ 2. To rotate the discs, a special electric motor , the design of which includes special bearings, which can be either ordinary ball or liquid (instead of balls, they use a special oil that absorbs shock loads, which increases the durability of the engine). Fluid bearings are quieter and generate almost no heat during operation.

In addition, some modern hard drives have an engine completely immersed in a sealed vessel with oil, which contributes to the efficient removal of heat from the windings.

3. Each disk has a pair of read/write heads. The gap between the heads and the surface of the disks is 0.1 microns, which is 500 times less than the thickness of a human hair. Magnetic head is a complex structure, consisting of dozens of parts. (These parts are so small that they are made by photolithography in the same way as modern microcircuits, i.e. they are burned with a laser with high precision) The working surface of the ceramic body of the head is polished with the same high precision as the disk.

4. Actuator is a flat solenoid coil made of copper wire, placed between the poles of a permanent magnet and fixed at the end of a lever rotating on a bearing. At its other end is a light arrow with magnetic heads.

The coil is able to move in a magnetic field under the action of the current passing through it, moving all the heads simultaneously in the radial direction. To prevent the coil with heads from dangling from side to side when not in use, there is a magnetic latch that holds the heads of the turned off hard drive in place. In the idle state of the drive, the heads are located near the center of the disks, in the "parking zone" and are pressed against the sides of the plates by light springs. This is the only moment when the heads touch the surface of the disk. But as soon as the disks begin to rotate, the air flow lifts the heads above their surface, overcoming the force of the springs. The heads "float" and from that moment on they are above the disk, not touching it at all. Since there is no mechanical contact between the head and the disk, there is no wear on the disks and heads.

5. Also inside the HDA is signal amplifier , placed close to the heads to reduce interference from external noise. It is connected to the heads with a flexible ribbon cable. The same cable is used to supply power to the moving coil of the actuator, and sometimes to the engine. Through a small connector, all these components are connected to the controller board.

In the process of formatting disks, it may turn out that there are one or more small areas on the surface of the platters, reading or writing to which is accompanied by errors (the so-called bad sectors, or bad blocks).

Sectors whose reads or writes result in errors are called @ bad sectors .

However because of this, the disk is not ejected and do not consider it spoiled, but only only mark these sectors in a special way, and they are further ignored. So that the user does not see this disgrace, the hard drive contains a number of spare tracks, with which the drive electronics "on the fly" replaces defective surface areas, making them absolutely transparent to the operating system.

In addition, not the entire area of the disk is dedicated to writing data. Part of the information surface is used by the drive for its own needs. This is the area of service, as it is sometimes called, engineering information.

Optical disc structure

AT In accordance with accepted standards, the surface of the disk is divided into three areas:

1. Input directory - an area in the form of a ring closest to the center of the disk (width 4 mm). Reading information from a disk begins precisely from the input directory, which contains the table of contents, addresses of records, the number of titles, disk size, disk name;

2. Data area ;

3. output directory – has an end-of-disk mark.

Types of optical discs:

CD-ROM. Information is recorded on a CD-ROM disc in an industrial way, and it is impossible to re-record it. The most widely used 5-inch CD-ROM discs with a capacity of 670 MB. According to their characteristics, they are completely identical to conventional music CDs. The data on the disk is written in the form of a spiral.
CD-R. The abbreviation CD-R stands for CD-Recordable, which is an optical record-once technology that can be used for data archiving, disc prototyping for mass production and low-volume CD releases, audio and video recording. The purpose of the CD-R device is to write data to CD-R CDs, which can then be read on CD-ROM and CD-RW drives.
CD-RW. Old data can be erased and new data can be written in its place. The capacity of CD-RW media is 650 MB and is equal to the capacity of CD-ROM and CD-R discs.
^ DVD-ROM, DVD-R, DVD-RW. Similar to the types of optical discs discussed earlier, but with a higher capacity.
Developed HVD(Holografic Versatile Dosc) with a capacity of 1 TB.

DVD technology allows 4 types of discs:

single-sided, single-layer - 4.7 GB
single-sided, dual-layer - 8.5 GB
double-sided, single-layer - 9.4 GB
double-sided, double-layer - 17 GB

Dual-layer discs use a reinforcing layer on which information has been written. When reading information from the first layer located in the depth of the disk, the laser passes through the transparent film of the second layer. When reading information from the second layer, the drive controller sends a signal to focus the laser beam on the second layer, and reading is performed from it. With all this, the diameter of the disk is 120 mm, and its thickness is 1.2 mm.

As already mentioned, for example, a double-sided double-layer DVD disc can hold up to 17 GB of information, this is about 8 hours of high-quality video, 26 hours of music, or, most clearly, a stack of paper 1.4 kilometers high written on both sides!

^ DVD formats

DVD-R. can only be single-layer, but it is possible to create double-sided discs. The principle by which DVD-R is recorded is exactly the same as that of CD-R. The reflective layer changes its characteristics under the influence of a high-power laser beam. DVD-R does not carry anything new, technically it is the same CD-R, only designed for thinner tracks. When creating DVD-R, the greatest attention is paid to compatibility with existing DVD-ROM drives. The length of the recording laser is 635 Nm + protection of the recorded discs from copying.
DVD+R. The principles on which DVD+R is built are identical to those used in DVD-R. The difference between them is in the recording format that is used. For example, DVD+R discs support recording in multiple steps. Recording laser length 650 Nm + more highly reflective surface.

^ There are two main classes of compact discs: CD and DVD.

ZIP drives.

Magneto-optical disks.

They are made of aluminum alloy and enclosed in a plastic shell. Capacity 25-50 GB.

Reading is carried out by optical method, and recording by magnetic means, as on floppy disks.

The data recording technology is as follows: a laser beam heats a point on the disk, and an electromagnet changes the magnetic orientation of this point, depending on what needs to be written: 0 or 1.

Reading is performed by a laser beam of lower power, which, reflected from this point, changes its polarity.

Externally, the magneto-optical media is similar to a 3.5 floppy disk, only a little thicker.

Flash drives

This technology is quite new and therefore does not belong to cheap solutions, however, there are all prerequisites for reducing the cost of devices in this class,

The basis of any flash drive is non-volatile memory. The device does not have any moving parts and is not susceptible to vibrations and mechanical shocks. Flash is not inherently magnetic and is not affected by magnetic fields. And power consumption occurs only during write / read operations, and USB power is sufficient.

^ The capacity of flash drives varies from approximately 256 MB to several GB (4-5 GB).

In addition to the fact that a flash drive can be used to record, securely store and transfer information, it can be divided into logical disks and installed as a boot disk.

Advantages

compact size;
no need for external power;
quite acceptable speed.

Technical means of information processing

In today's world, it is very important to receive accurate information on time. The livelihoods of people depend on it. For this reason, every day there are more and more different devices that collect and process data. What should be understood by these processes?

Procedure for receiving data from the outside world

A person can collect information. And you can use the technical means and systems. In such situations, this process will occur in hardware. For example, the user managed to obtain data on train routes on his own, by studying the timetable at the station. He can do the same with his phone or computer.

This suggests that the procedure for collecting information is a rather complex software and hardware complex. What is meant by such a process? This is the procedure for receiving any data coming from the outside world. Such information is brought to a standard form for applied systems. Modern technical devices not only collect data, encode it and display it for review. There is also information processing.

Using different ways of working with data. Technology for working with them

Processing should be understood as an ordered process of obtaining the required information from a set of specific data using special algorithms. This procedure can be done in several ways. There are such means of information processing as centralized, decentralized, distributed and integrated.

Use of data centers for data processing

Centralized processing implies that there must be a computer center (CC). With this method, the user delivers the initial data to the CC. After that, he is provided with the result in the form of specific documentation.

A distinctive feature of this method is the complexity. It is quite difficult to establish a fast uninterrupted connection. In addition, there is a large workload of the center with information. In addition, the deadlines for completing the tasks are regulated, and it is not always possible to complete them on time. Such processing of information is also complicated due to the presence of security measures that prevent possible unauthorized access.

What is the meaning of decentralized method?

At the time of the appearance of the PC, a decentralized method arose. It provides the ability to automate a specific workplace. To date, there are 3 types of technologies for such data processing. The first one is based on personal computers that are not connected to a local network. This information processing technology involves storing data in separate files. In order to get the indicators, you need to overwrite the files on your computer. The negative points include the fact that there is no interconnection of tasks. It is impossible to process large amounts of information. In addition, this information processing is characterized by low security against hacking.

The second technology is based on computers that are connected to a local network, which leads to the formation of single data files. However, with a large flow of information in such a situation, it will not be possible to cope. The third technology is based on computers connected to a local network, which also includes servers.

Working with a large amount of data

Distributed information processing is based on the fact that functions are shared between different computers that are connected to the same network. This can be done in two ways:

It is necessary to install a computer in each individual node of the network. In such a situation, processing will take place using one or more computers. It all depends on the real capabilities of the system, as well as on the needs.
It is necessary to place most of the various processes within one system. A similar path is used when processing banking information in the presence of branches or branches.

Distributed information processing allows you to operate data in any volume within a specified time frame. There is a fairly high level of reliability. Significantly reduces the time and cost of information transfer. Increases the flexibility of systems and simplifies development using software tools. The distributed method is based on specialized processes. In other words, each computer is designed to solve its own problem.

Using databases to store and process information

The integrated method implies the formation of an information model of a managed object. In other words, a distributed database is created. This method allows you to make the process of information processing the most convenient for the user. More than one person can use the database at the same time. But a large amount of information requires distribution. Due to this method, it is possible to significantly improve the quality, reliability and speed of processing. This is due to the fact that the technique is based on a single information array, which is entered into the computer once.

The information processing methods have been described above. But with the help of what technical means does this process take place? It is necessary to dwell on this issue in more detail.

What is meant by technical means?

Technical means should be understood as a complex of autonomous types of equipment that allows collecting, accumulating, transmitting, processing and outputting data, as well as a set of office equipment, controls, maintenance devices, etc. The following requirements are imposed on all of the above systems:

Technical means, which are based on different methods of information processing, should provide a solution to the problem with the lowest possible losses. It is necessary to achieve maximum accuracy and reliability.
Technical compatibility, aggregation of devices is required.
High reliability must be ensured.
Purchase costs should be kept to a minimum.

Domestic and foreign industry produces just a huge set of technical tools that help process information. They may differ from each other in element base, design, use of a variety of data carriers, as well as operational parameters, etc.

Technical means can be:

Auxiliary.
Basic.

What should be understood by auxiliary types of devices?

In the first case, this is equipment that ensures the performance of basic facilities. Auxiliary devices also include devices that facilitate the simplification of managerial work. They make it more comfortable. It can be office equipment and repair and preventive means. Organizational devices include a large number of nomenclature tools, from stationery to devices for delivery, reproduction, deletion, search and storage of data. We are talking about all types of equipment, due to which the activities of the manager become easier, more convenient and comfortable.

What is included in the complex of basic types of devices?

Information processing technology can be based on fixed assets. They should be understood as devices aimed at automating work with data. In order to be able to establish control over certain processes, it is required to have some managerial data. Due to them, it will be possible to characterize the state, parameters of technological processes, quantitative and cost indicators.

The main information processing systems may include:

Devices that record and collect data.
Equipment that receives and transmits data.
Tools for preparing data.
Devices for input, processing and display of data.

Conclusion

In this article, such a topic as the collection and processing of information was considered. It was decided to focus on working with data. This is a rather urgent and complex task that requires high reliability, accuracy and reliability. We hope that this review has helped to understand what the process of information processing is.

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1. Overview and classification of technical means of data processing

1.1 Data processing modes

When designing technological processes, they are guided by the modes of their implementation. The mode of implementation of the technology depends on the volume and time features of the tasks being solved: periodicity and urgency, requirements for the speed of message processing, as well as on the regime capabilities of technical means, and primarily computers. There are: batch mode; real time mode; time sharing mode; regulatory regime; request; dialog; teleprocessing; interactive; single program; multiprogram (multi-processing).

Batch mode. When using this mode, the user does not have direct communication with the computer. Collection and registration of information, input and processing do not coincide in time. First, the user collects information, forming it into packages in accordance with the type of tasks or some other sign. (As a rule, these are tasks of a non-operational nature, with a long-term validity of the results of the solution). After the reception of information is completed, it is entered and processed, i.e., there is a processing delay. This mode is used, as a rule, with a centralized method of information processing.

Dialogue mode(request) mode, in which it is possible for the user to directly interact with the computer system during the user's work. Data processing programs are permanently stored in the computer memory if the computer is available at any time, or during a certain period of time when the computer is available to the user. The interaction of a user with a computer system in the form of a dialogue can be multifaceted and determined by various factors: the language of communication, the active or passive role of the user; who is the initiator of the dialogue - the user or the computer; response time; dialogue structure, etc. If the initiator of the dialogue is the user, then he must have knowledge of working with procedures, data formats, etc. If the initiator is a computer, then the machine itself tells at each step what to do with the various possibilities of choice. This method of operation is called “menu selection”. It provides support for user actions and prescribes their sequence. In this case, less training is required from the user.

The interactive mode requires a certain level of technical equipment of the user, i.e. the presence of a terminal or PC connected to the central computer system by communication channels. This mode is used to access information, computing or software resources. The ability to work in an interactive mode can be limited in terms of the start and end time of work, or it can be unlimited.

Sometimes a distinction is made between dialogue and interrogative modes, then the query is understood as a one-time access to the system, after which it issues a response and turns off, and the dialog is the mode in which the system issues a response after the request and waits for further user actions.

Real time mode. Means the ability of a computing system to interact with controlled or controlled processes at the pace of these processes. The reaction time of the computer must satisfy the pace of the controlled process or the requirements of users and have a minimum delay. As a rule, this mode is used in decentralized and distributed data processing.

Teleprocessing mode allows a remote user to interact with the computer system.

interactive mode implies the possibility of two-way interaction between the user and the system, i.e. the user has the ability to influence the data processing process.

Time Sharing Mode implies the ability of the system to allocate its resources to a group of users in turn. The computing system serves each user so quickly that it seems that several users are working at the same time. This possibility is achieved through the appropriate software.

Single program and multiprogram modes characterize the ability of the system to work simultaneously on one or more programs.

Regulatory regime characterized by the certainty in time of individual tasks of the user. For example, receiving results summaries at the end of the month, calculating payroll sheets for certain dates, etc. Terms of decision are set in advance according to the regulations, as opposed to arbitrary requests.

1.2 Data processing methods

The following methods of data processing are distinguished: centralized, decentralized, distributed and integrated.

Centralized suggests presence. With this method, the user delivers the initial information to the CC and receives the results of processing in the form of effective documents. A feature of this processing method is the complexity and laboriousness of establishing a fast, uninterrupted connection, a large workload of CC information (since its volume is large), regulation of the timing of operations, organization of system security from possible unauthorized access.

decentralized treatment. This method is associated with the emergence of PCs, which make it possible to automate a specific workplace.

distributed way data processing is based on the distribution of processing functions between different computers included in the network. This method can be implemented in two ways: the first involves the installation of a computer in each network node (or at each level of the system), while data processing is carried out by one or more computers, depending on the actual capabilities of the system and its needs at the current time. The second way is to place a large number of different processors inside one system. This way is used in banking and financial information processing systems, where a data processing network is needed (branches, departments, etc.). Advantages of the distributed method: the ability to process any amount of data within a given timeframe; high degree of reliability, since in case of failure of one technical means it is possible to instantly replace it with another; reduction of time and costs for data transmission; increasing the flexibility of systems, simplifying the development and operation of software, etc. The distributed method is based on a complex of specialized processors, i.e. Each computer is designed to solve certain tasks, or tasks of its own level.

Integrated way of processing information. It provides for the creation of an information model of a managed object, that is, the creation of a distributed database. This method provides maximum convenience for the user. On the one hand, databases provide for collective use and centralized management. On the other hand, the amount of information, the variety of tasks to be solved require the distribution of the database. Integrated information processing technology improves the quality, reliability and speed of processing. processing is carried out on the basis of a single information array, once entered into the computer. A feature of this method is the technological and time separation of the processing procedure from the procedures for collecting, preparing and entering data.

1.3 Complex of technical means of information processing

The complex of technical means of information processing is a set of autonomous devices for collecting, accumulating, transmitting, processing and presenting information, as well as office equipment, management, maintenance and other means. A number of requirements are imposed on the complex of technical means:

Ensuring the solution of problems with minimal costs, the necessary accuracy and reliability

Possibility of technical compatibility of devices, their aggregability

Ensuring high reliability

Minimum acquisition costs

Domestic and foreign industry produces a wide range of technical means of information processing, differing in element base, design, use of various information carriers, operational characteristics, etc.

1.4 Classification of technical means of information processing

Technical means of information processing are divided into two large groups. it main and auxiliary processing means.

Auxiliary means are equipment that ensures the operability of fixed assets, as well as equipment that facilitates and makes managerial work more comfortable. Auxiliary means of information processing include office equipment and repair and preventive means. Office equipment is represented by a very wide range of tools, from office supplies, to delivery, reproduction, storage, search and destruction of basic data, administrative and production communication tools, and so on, which makes the work of a manager convenient and comfortable.

Fixed assets are the tools of labor for automated information processing. It is known that for the management of certain processes, certain management information is required that characterizes the state and parameters of technological processes, quantitative, cost and labor indicators of production, supply, marketing, financial activity, etc. The main means of technical processing include: means of registering and collecting information, means of receiving and transmitting data, means of preparing data, input means, means of processing information and means of displaying information. Below, all these tools are discussed in detail.

Obtaining primary information and registration is one of the labor-intensive processes. Therefore, it is widely used devices for mechanized and automated measurement, collection and data logging. The range of these funds is very extensive. These include: electronic scales, various counters, scoreboards, flow meters, cash registers, banknote counting machines, ATMs and much more. This also includes various production registrars designed to draw up and record information about business transactions on machine media.

Means of receiving and transmitting information. Information transfer refers to the process of sending data (messages) from one device to another. An interacting set of objects formed by data transmission and processing devices is called a network. They combine devices designed to transmit and receive information. They provide information exchange between the place of its origin and the place of its processing. The structure of means and methods of data transmission is determined by the location of information sources and data processing facilities, the volume and time for data transmission, types of communication lines and other factors. Data transmission means are represented by subscriber stations (AP), transmission equipment, modems, multiplexers.

Data preparation tools represented by devices for preparing information on machine media, devices for transferring information from documents to media, including computer devices. These devices can sort and correct.

Input Tools serve to perceive data from machine media and enter information into computer systems

Information processing tools play an important role in the complex of technical means of information processing. Processing tools include computers, which in turn are divided into four classes: micro, small (mini); large and supercomputers. Microcomputer There are two types: universal and specialized.

Both universal and specialized can be both multi-user - powerful computers equipped with several terminals and operating in time-sharing mode (servers), and single-user (workstations) that specialize in performing one type of work.

Small computers- work in time-sharing and multi-tasking mode. Their positive side is reliability and ease of operation.

Mainframes- (main farms) are characterized by a large amount of memory, high fault tolerance and performance. It is also characterized by high reliability and data protection; the ability to connect a large number of users.

supercomputer- these are powerful multiprocessor computers with a speed of 40 billion operations per second.

Server- a computer dedicated to processing requests from all network stations and providing these stations with access to system resources and distributing these resources. The universal server is called - server-application. Powerful servers can be attributed to small and large computers. Now Marshall servers are the leader, and there are also Cray servers (64 processors).

Means of displaying information used to output calculation results, reference data and programs to machine media, print, screen, and so on. Output devices include monitors, printers, and plotters.

Monitor- This is a device designed to display information entered by the user from the keyboard or output by a computer.

Printer- This is a device for outputting text and graphic information to paper.

Plotter- This is a device for outputting drawings and diagrams of large formats to paper.

Technology -- this is a complex of scientific and engineering knowledge implemented in labor methods, sets of material, technical, energy, labor factors of production, ways of combining them to create a product or service that meets certain requirements. Therefore, technology is inextricably linked with the mechanization of the production or non-production, primarily management process. Management technologies are based on the use of computers and telecommunications technology.

According to the definition adopted by UNESCO, information technology -- is a complex of interrelated, scientific, technological and engineering disciplines that study the methods of effective organization of labor of people involved in the processing and storage of information; computer technology and methods of organizing and interacting with people and production equipment. Their practical applications, as well as the social, economic and cultural problems associated with all this. Information technologies themselves require complex training, high initial costs and high technology. Their introduction should begin with the creation of software, the formation of information flows in specialist training systems.

2 . Management information technology

The purpose of management information technology is to meet the information needs of all employees of the company, without exception, dealing with decision-making. It can be useful at any level of management.

This technology is focused on working in the environment of an information management system and is used when the tasks being solved are worse structured when compared with the tasks solved using information technology for data processing.

Management information technology is ideally suited to meet the similar information needs of employees of various functional subsystems (divisions) or levels of company management. The information they provide contains information about the past, present and probable future of the company. This information takes the form of regular or ad hoc management reports.

To make decisions at the level of managerial control, information must be presented in an aggregated form, so that trends in data changes, causes of deviations and possible solutions can be seen. At this stage, the following data processing tasks are solved:

* assessment of the planned state of the control object;

* assessment of deviations from the planned state;

* identifying the causes of deviations;

* analysis of possible solutions and actions.

Information technology management is aimed at creating various types of reports.

Regular reports are generated according to a set schedule that determines when they are generated, such as a monthly analysis of a company's sales.

Special reports are created at the request of managers or when something unplanned happened in the company. Both types of reports may take the form of summary, comparative and extraordinary reports.

AT summarizing In reports, data is combined into separate groups, sorted and presented as intermediate and final totals for individual fields.

Comparative reports contain data obtained from various sources or classified according to various criteria and used for comparison purposes.

emergency reports contain data of an exclusively (emergency) nature.

The use of reports to support management is particularly effective in the implementation of so-called management, but variances. Deviation management assumes that the main content of the data received by the manager should be deviations of the state of the company's economic activity from certain established standards (for example, from its planned state). When using the principles of variance management in a company, the following requirements are imposed on the generated reports:

* a report should only be generated when a deviation has occurred

* the information in the report should be sorted by the value of the indicator that is critical for this deviation;

* it is desirable to show all deviations together so that the manager can catch the connection existing between them;

* in the report it is necessary to show the quantitative deviation from the norm.

Main Components

Input information comes from operational level systems. The output information is formed in the form management reports in convenient for decision making. The contents of the database are converted by appropriate software into periodic and ad hoc reports for the decision makers of the organization. The database used to obtain the specified information must consist of two elements:

1) data accumulated on the basis of an assessment of the operations conducted by the firm;

2) plans, standards, budgets and other regulatory documents that determine the planned state of the control object (firm division).

2.1 The choice of options for the implementation of information technology in the company

When introducing information technology into a firm, it is necessary to choose one of two main concepts that reflect the prevailing points of view on the existing structure of the organization and the role of computer information processing in it.

First concept focuses on existing firm structure. Information technology is adapting to the organizational structure, and there is only a modernization of working methods. Communications are poorly developed, only jobs are being rationalized. There is a distribution of functions between technical workers and specialists. The degree of risk from the introduction of new information technology is minimal, since the costs are insignificant and the organizational structure of the company does not change.

The main disadvantage of such a strategy is the need for continuous changes in the form of information presentation, adapted to specific technological methods and technical means. Any operational solution gets stuck at various stages of information technology.

To virtues strategies can be attributed to the minimum degree of risk and cost.

Second concept I am oriented towards future firm structure. The existing structure will be modernized.

This strategy involves the maximum development of communications and the development of new organizational relationships. The productivity of the organizational structure of the company increases, since data archives are rationally distributed, the volume of information circulating through system channels is reduced, and a balance is achieved between the tasks to be solved.

Its main disadvantages include:

significant costs at the first stage associated with the development of a general concept and examination of all departments of the company;

the presence of psychological tension caused by the proposed changes in the structure of the company and, as a result, changes in the staffing table and job responsibilities

The advantages of this strategy are:

rationalization of the organizational structure of the company;

maximum employment of all workers;

high professional level;

integration of professional functions through the use of computer networks.

The new information technology in the company should be such that the levels of information and the subsystems that process it are interconnected by a single array of information. There are two requirements for this. First, the structure of the information processing system must correspond to the distribution of powers in the firm. Secondly, the information within the system must function in such a way as to adequately reflect the levels of control.

2. 2 Applied information technologies of market economy

To support new economic mechanisms, NITs adequate to market relations should be developed. In particular, in modern conditions, banking and investment activities are undergoing changes, taxation is being improved, new types of management activities and market entities are emerging, which requires effective applied information technologies.

banking systems. The development and improvement of banking structures creates a need for new services of financial institutions. The decentralization of the banking system leads to a fundamentally new organization that requires the development of a concept for the integrated informatization of individual institutions to improve the efficiency of their own functioning, as well as to interact with each other, with the Central Bank of the Russian Federation and with foreign partners. Banking information technologies should provide sufficient efficiency in the organization of settlements. In addition, this area of banking is the most labor-intensive, contains a large amount of calculations and is characterized as routine.

The use of simulation modeling to build banking technologies is one of the most promising approaches to solving strategic problems. A banker can imitate the financial performance of a bank, evaluate the effectiveness and consequences of decisions made, and thus determine his policy in the financial market. This area is closely related to the development of expert systems, oriented both to bank customers and bank specialists.

An extremely important issue of informatization of banking activity remains the organization of communication between Russian banks. Existing paper technology usually takes 2-3 days to transfer money. In this case, the delay may be due to both the very form of organization of settlements and the state of communications. The introduction of BAT can contribute to a way out of this crisis. Since independently developed and modernized software systems are too expensive, the role of organizations specializing in the field of banking technologies and capable of solving banking problems in a comprehensive manner is increasing. The emerging products, called “banking platforms”, which, from the point of view of a single unified functional base, provide a common solution to all banking tasks, will determine the quality standards and functionality of automated banking information processing systems.

Exchange technologies. Experience has shown that the design of exchange computer systems is a logically complex, time-consuming and time-consuming work that requires high qualifications of all specialists involved in its implementation. The design of such complexes is traditionally based on intuition, expert assessments, expensive experimental checks of the functioning of the complex, and practical experience. In addition, with the growth in the number of users of the exchange technology, the role of high performance of its functioning is increasing, which significantly depends on the design ideology.

The introduction of modern exchange information technologies into practice should help to increase the economic efficiency of the exchange by expanding the scope of its activities in the regions of the country, accelerating the turnover of working capital, involving mass suppliers, intermediaries and buyers in the exchange process, ensuring the possibility of actively committing not only large-scale, but also medium- and small-scale transactions in mass quantities, automating labor-intensive and lengthy routine processes, collecting and analyzing applications from brokerage firms for buying and selling by computer, conducting automated trading (rate calculation, conclusion of transactions, execution of trading contracts and clearing settlements) by unified rules that ensure the protection of the interests of the investor, equal rights of all bidders, etc.

Management technologies. In market conditions, all procedures of production management are filled with new content. Any production is connected with flows of both internal and external information. Among the variety of incoming information, a manager needs only strictly defined ones to make a decision, and all the rest are information noise. In addition, most information does not appear where it is needed, so the ability to overcome this distance is of great importance for the successful solution of emerging problems. The resolution of the communication problem affects the speed of information receipt and its timeliness, which contributes to a more efficient operation of the enterprise. This far from complete range of problems reveals the need to build a special management information system that contributes to their optimal solution. Currently, there are two main approaches to the construction of such systems. These are MIS-systems (Management Information Systems), which by the right time in the "most convenient form, taking into account the generally accepted principle of economy, provide the information necessary for the manager about the past, present and future in accordance with the situation that has arisen. The second approach is based on DSS-systems ( Decision Support Systems), which are focused on the intellectual support of decision-making processes and aim to support the decisions being made.

The principle of selective distribution of information involves the systematization of information in accordance with the following requirements:

information must correspond to the level of management, which is expressed in its enlargement and compaction when moving from the lower to the upper level;

information should correspond to the nature of management and correspond to the totality of management objectives, i.e. for each level of control, information is provided that allows you to perform all the functions of the control process. For example, at the analysis stage, not only current, but also past and forecast data are used, actual values are compared with planned ones, and the causes of deviations are identified.

Marketing technologies. A comprehensive study of marketing information flows requires the analysis of large amounts of information of a commercial and statistical nature. Marketing information technology is a set of procedures and methods designed to organize prospective and ongoing marketing research.

Tax information systems. The transformation of the tax system necessitates the modification, and sometimes even a radical restructuring of the relevant information technologies. Since the tax system of modern Russia has no analogues, in solving the problem of informatization of the activities of tax services, one cannot count on borrowing foreign software and mathematical products. Therefore, if effective technologies for collecting and processing the necessary information have been created to implement the official tax policy, then such a policy, no matter how successful and promising it may be, is doomed to failure. Reform ideologists who want to stimulate production and capital accumulation through a fair distribution of the tax burden need to clearly understand the possibilities of NIT.

Among the main directions of the concept of informatization of the tax system, it is advisable to single out:

creation of a single integrated information and analytical system designed to serve the tax services;

development of a modern communication network that provides information exchange both within the system and with external objects;

preparation of cedars in the new information environment.

The following are proposed as the main principles of informatization of tax services:

the complexity and consistency of informatization, its subordination to solving the problems facing the tax service at the present time and in the future;

activity in meeting the information needs of users;

phasing and continuity in informatization;

distributed storage and processing of information;

compatibility of system-wide and specialized data banks for input, output and basic tasks;

providing the user with convenient access to information within his competence; one-time input of information and its multiple, multi-purpose use; ensuring the required confidentiality of information