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Computer and microprocessor

Electronic Calculating machine (computer) Is a device that performs data input operations, their processing according to the program, and the output of processing results in a form suitable for human perception.

As part of a computer, one can distinguish information input devices (keyboard, mouse, ...), arithmetic-logical device (ALU), random access memory (RAM), control device (UU), information output devices (display screen, printer, ...).

ALU carries out direct data processing: adding two numbers, multiplying one number by another, transferring information from one place to another. UU coordinates the interaction of all computer devices. RAM is intended for writing, reading and temporary storage of programs (when the computer is turned off, the information in RAM is erased), initial data, intermediate and final results. Direct access to memory elements. All memory cells are combined into groups of 8 bits (1 byte) and each such group has an address at which it can be accessed.

The first miniature computer housed in one super-large integrated circuit(VLSI) on a silicon crystal, was developed and released in 1971 by Intel (USA). This VLSI was named microprocessor (MP) type i8008. This scheme contained several thousand active elements(transistors) implementing schematic diagram COMPUTER (ALU, UU, RAM).

The number of such active elements in a MF crystal is called its degree of integration. Together with clock frequency, bitness and address space they define main parameters of MP.

Clock frequency of MP characterizes its performance. It is set by a microcircuit called a clock generator. Modern MPs have clock frequency up to two or more GigaHertz (GHz).

Bit depth MP Is the number of simultaneously processed MT bits (8, 16, 32, 64 bits). The greater the bit depth of the MP, the more information it can process in a unit of time, the higher its efficiency.

The maximum amount of memory that an MP can serve is called it address space... The address space is determined by the width of the address bus.

Today it is customary to divide MPs according to the peculiarities of their architecture into the following 4 groups.RISC Are high-speed MPs with reduced instruction set. Their main manufacturers are Sun, DEC, HP, IBM. CISC Is an MT with a complex set of commands. These include all MPs x86, Pentium, Pentium Pro, Pentium II, III, 4. Their main manufacturers are Intel, AMD. VLIW Is a MT with an extra-long command word (Intel Itanium). EPIC- This is an MP of computations with "explicit parallelism" (Intel Itanium).

Personal computer, central unit which is a microprocessor is called personal computer. Those. personal computer (PC)- This is a computer implemented on the basis of microprocessor technology and focused on personal use by a person.

2. Classification of modern computers

In the literature, a variant of dividing modern computers into the following categories has been proposed.

1) Pocket PCs much simpler than PCs of other categories, however, complete with cell phone, fax modem and printer, they can represent a complete equipment of a mobile office. OS Windows CE. RAM at least 4 MB. Communication with desktop PCs is wireless infrared. Weight about 200 gr. The batteries last about 10 hours on a single charge.

2) Laptops are full-fledged PCs. For them mobile MP Intel Celeron / Pentium III / IV and SVGA-displays are used. OS - Windows 2000. CD-ROM or DVD-ROM drives available. Weight 3-4 kg. Thickness - 5 cm.

3) PC for the field of home automation (HomePC) appeared relatively recently (in 1998). Two lines of such PCs are being developed. The first is eHome (developed by MicroSoft) for controlling home electronics (refrigerator, washing machine, air conditioner), for working with a game console and browsing the Internet. The second is a wireless PC (developed by Intel). The PC can be connected to a TV or stereo system wirelessly.

4) Basic desktops are the most common. Since 2002, they have been based on the Intel Pentium 4 microprocessor.

In the RS 99 specification(these are Intel and MicroSoft recommendations) suggested by PC 2000 divide into categories: Consumer PC, Office PC, Entertainment PC, Mobile PC, Workstation PC ( work station).

RS 2001 Specification(also developed by Intel and MicroSoft) contains PC requirements:

The PC should not have ISA slots, PS / 2 ports, 1.2 / 1.44 MB drives and MS-DOS.

USB bus support is required, since all keyboards, mice, joysticks must have a USB interface.

Processor from 500 MHz (workstation - from 700 MHz).

CACHE from 128 KB (workstation - from 512 KB).

Memory from 64 MB (workstation - from 128 MB).

The system must control the built-in fan.

Video in a format of at least 1024 * 768 pixels (with a refresh rate of at least 85 Hz).

The audio subsystem should support 2 key formats 44.1 48 KHz, without loading MP by more than 10%.

CD-ROM drives must be 8x or faster.

If you have a DVD-ROM, then it should play DVD-RAM, DVD + RW discs, as well as all CD-ROM disc formats.

ASDN, ADSL and adapters welcomed wireless.

PC specification forWindowsXPrequires:

RAM 128 MB, video memory 64 MB, PC boot up in less than 30 s, exit from temporary shutdown in 20 s.

HDD not less than 40 GB.

Magneto-optical drives CD-R / W, DVD and combined.

The system must have 4 USB ports.

Graphics subsystem 1024 * 768 (but better than 1280 * 1024).

Have a DVI digital interface connector for LCD monitors.

Have network ethernet 10/100 adapter, built-in DSL or cable modem.

The noise from the PC is not higher than 37 db.

5) Networked PCs promoted by Sun, IBM, Oracle, as well as Intel, MicroSoft and HP. These PCs usually do not have a hard drive and depend on the server's disk storage. They are of low cost. Often it is a sealed PC with no option to install expansion cards.

6) High-performance desktops and entry-level servers are more expensive devices. They are intended for desktop publishing users who need to work with complex graphics. They usually have a midi tower case with large quantity expansion connectors. Can support multiple drives. They have a large cache memory. Their main quality is reliability and fault tolerance.

7) Multiprocessor workstations and high-end servers have from two to eight efficient processors. For them, the concept of "scalability" is important - i.e. the ability to increase the number of processors, memory modules and other resources to perform practical tasks of a higher level.

8) Supercomputers intended for scientific research, for meteorology, aerodynamics, seismology, atomic and nuclear physics, mathematical modeling, etc. The performance and price of these computers is enormous.

9) Cluster system Is an association of computers that is a single whole for the OS, system software, application programs and users. They provide a high degree of fault tolerance and at the same time, these systems are cheaper than supercomputers.

Choosing a personal computer (PC) for solving applied problems Is a serious task. Usually it does not have an unambiguous solution and largely depends on the intended scope of application of the PC (the class of applied problems to be solved).

For example, for computer control of students' knowledge, the following requirements for equipment in a modern computer class can be formulated.

1) Equipping personal computers with the Russian version of Windows 2000 / XP.

2) Availability of Internet access (it is enough to have one access to all classes to transfer files with protocols via the Internet to the university server).

3) The presence in the classroom of one computer with a sound card and speakers for the "Listening" subtest when testing in English, Russian as a foreign language, etc.

4) Special requirements for additional equipment in the classroom (false panels, video camera, panoramic glass, etc.) related to the specifics of the computer testing procedure and the need to ensure information security.

Personal computers... Differences between PCs and computers for general and special purposes

Differences between PCs and computers for general and special purposes. The structure of a modern desktop PC, which basically repeats the structure of a mainframe, differs from the latter in a wide variety of configurations of nodes and peripheral equipment. This diversity reflects the implementation of the principle of open architecture. Not only the company, but also the user himself can draw up any PC configuration necessary for his purposes within the limits of possibilities motherboard PC.

PCs also have a choice central processing unit, the number and types of ports, which are mating parts of the connectors with which peripherals are connected to the PC - devices external memory and various technical means input and output of information (monitor, mouse, keyboard, etc.), the presence of audiovisual configuration components - sound and video cards, the presence of wireless ultrasonic or infrared communication devices, etc.

Careful examination modern market PCs and peripherals (exhibitions, trade organizations, etc.) show that all PCs are equipped with perfect devices. RAM reaches hundreds and thousands of megabytes, external memory - tens and hundreds of gigabytes. PC equipped powerful processors(performance - from one to three or more gigahertz), motherboards with a large number of ports (more than ten), powerful video and sound cards, network cards, modems and fax modems, etc. motherboards often integrated video, audio and network card, which by reducing the detachable connections of the PC units increases the reliability of its operation.

Compared to the PC of the end of the last century, the PCs of the first years of the new millennium in terms of power, the degree of miniaturization, ergonomic perfection (size, weight, design) have reached the indicators predicted for the fifth generation computer. Portable PCs (notebooks) began to be positioned as desktop substitutes. The industry produces full-scale graphics workstations in laptop format, as well as desktop PCs in which all nodes, including the monitor, are integrated in a single unit that takes up the same space as a laptop.

A specific modern graphic station in a laptop format can have very high parameters and a wide range of peripherals: an internal modem, a wireless port for accessing local area network(and through it - to the Internet), built-in video camera, microphone and two speakers. A set of ports allows you to: connect a second monitor or instead of it - a TV, as well as -external microphone and audio speakers, a printer, a scanner, an external photo and video camera, game controllers, a second keyboard and a number of other devices, most of which equip a graphics station at the same time, and not in replacement mode. When this PC is saturated with software applications, it can be interpreted not only as a graphic, but also as a multimedia, music station - workplace composer, designer, designer, etc.

Currently, users are armed with a large volume of flash memory (up to 1-2 GB) that does not require power supply. Originally this silicon-based memory was used to record music in miniature MP3 players. Today, not only sound is recorded on flash memory ( Memory Memory Strick by Sony - up to 80 minutes of music), but also images and texts. It is also included in printers, digital camcorders, cameras, and a variety of other automation products.

Factors that determined the mass character of the PC. The special role of PCs in the formation and functioning of modern screen culture is determined by their availability to the general public, massive distribution, perfection of the device and a variety of models and software. Of course, the main reason for the mass character of PCs is the market mechanisms of the capitalist economy. However, some of the design features of PCs and software architecture contribute greatly to their dissemination and improvement.

We restrict ourselves to the two design principles first introduced by IBM when creating their PCs (1981), which ensured the mass production and distribution of PCs.

The principle of open architecture, when IBM "simply transferred" the modularity of the computer design to the PC, became a powerful engine of their development and distribution. PC nodes began to be developed by many companies, and not by one, as is usually the case for computers with a closed (monolithic) architecture. Made possible complete assembly PC by any company and even an individual user. PCs from other firms have become two to three times cheaper than IBM's. PC models in the IBM architecture are produced by many companies today. These models are fully compatible with IBM PCs. There is a term: "IBM-compatible PC".

The second principle used in the logic of construction software applications, there was a principle of "top-down compatibility" of PC nodes and itself as a whole. This principle means that each next version(model) PC or its individual component only adds new technical capabilities PC. The new ability to "run" old programs on newer versions of a PC (but not vice versa) has also become a powerful engine of its distribution.

Periphery equipment PC. It includes technical means of input and output of information, external memory devices and technical means of data teleprocessing. The computer periphery is developing extremely rapidly. It exists in a huge variety of models and types, defining how functionality PC, as well as the methods of communication between the user and the PC directly and at a distance.

Information input devices in a PC include a keyboard, mouse, scanner, microphone, game controllers, recorders, digital photo and video cameras, video and audio recorders with a converter analog signal in digital, etc., PC-related cables, which are increasingly being replaced by so-called wireless connections on a different physical basis.

The main device for entering information into a PC is a keyboard. What matters is the ergonomics of keyboards produced in several modifications. Exceptionally "soft" keyboards with plastic pins have been supplanted by clickable keyboards that accurately record the keystroke.

Exists touch keyboards without mechanical elements, usually used in industry due to its exceptional durability and due to the impossibility of getting "between the keys" (instead of which pads made of sensor foil are used) foreign objects ( paper clips, cigarette ash, etc.).

Keyboards contain a different number of keys. The XT keyboard has 83 keys (sometimes 85). Added "poll system" key to AT keyboard. The MFII (Multifunction) keyboard has 102 keys. Special keyboards contain additional devices barcode reader, braille display for blind users, etc.

Another important means of entering information into a computer is the "mouse" manipulator. The coordinates of the cursor come from the mouse via a cable or without a cable from a miniature radio transmitter, or by a light beam optical mouse... The left mouse button is used to select (click) an object - an icon or another and "drag" (without releasing the button) it across the screen. Double click activates an object - launches a command or program symbolized by the icon.

The joystick is game pad, serving mainly for management computer game... Usually provide two ports for joysticks if the PC is oriented like a gaming one.

For drawing on the screen, there is Graphics tablet and a graphic pen (pencil). An active coordinate grid is "wired" into the tablet, so that a graphic pen, similar to a mouse, outputs a signal - a drawing point or other tool on the screen. For the tablet to work, a special program must be loaded into the PC.

Digital camcorder, also called a webcam, is often embedded in laptops and is used for network video conferencing. The image quality from the webcam is still poor.

Image in digital camera is perceived by a matrix of photosensors, which transmits signals to the camera's memory. These images can then be displayed on a PC screen, or printed off-line on an inkjet photo printer.

Scanners into the PC enter texts, photos and graphic images, barcodes, etc. Another type of input is carried out from an intermediate medium with a large flash memory - a portable hard drive, magnetic or optical CDs; in this case, the input device is a floppy drive.

Devices for outputting information from a digital computer include means for outputting alphanumeric data, means for outputting graphics and integrated ones. From the very beginning of development computing technology- punching and printing devices, plotters (plotters) of many types, monitors (displays), which are also a means of controlling data input (means of communication), are undergoing powerful development. Dot Matrix Printers of the 1970s and 1980s in most of the digital computers were replaced by inkjet, as well as laser based on the principles of electrography, like copier type of copier.

Monitors based on cathode ray tube began to be intensively replaced by "thin" display models: LCD based on liquid crystal elements, PDP based on plasma ones, which significantly reduces the dimensions and increases the ergonomics of desktop PCs. LCD-displays are equipped with a laptop (laptop), pocket computer and virtual helmet... (PDP displays are not used in them due to high power consumption.)

Multimedia technology. Multimedia (multimedia) technology combines text, graphics, music, speech and motion pictures in a PC. Commercial network and firms that manufacture and assemble PCs, for their own purposes, divide them into office, home and multimedia (centers). In light of the rapid growth of PC parameters and their capabilities, including the unification of all types of information media (media), any such division loses its meaning, since all multimedia functions become available even to an inexpensive PC.

A computer (from the English computer - calculator) is a programmable electronic computing device designed for storing and transmitting information, as well as data processing. That is, a computer is a complex of software-controlled electronic devices.

The term " personal computer p "is a synonym for the abbreviation" computer"(Electronic computer). When personal computers appeared, the term computer soon fell out of use, being replaced by the term "computer", " PC" or " PC».

A computer can use calculations to process information according to a certain algorithm. Besides, software allows the computer to store, receive and search for information, as well as output it to various input devices. The name of computers comes from their main function - computing, but today, in addition to computing, computers are used to process information, as well as for games.

The computer circuit was proposed in 1949 by the mathematician John von Neumann, and since then the principle of the device has hardly changed.

According to von Neumann's principles, a computer should consist of following devices:

arithmetic logic unit that performs logical and arithmetic operations;

a storage device for storing data;

a control device organizing the process of executing programs;

information input-output devices.

Computer memory should consist of a certain number of numbered cells, each of which contains program instructions or data to be processed. The cells are available to all devices on the computer.

Most computers are designed according to the principle of open architecture:

a description of the configuration and operating principle of a PC, which allows you to assemble a computer from individual parts and assemblies;

the presence of expansion slots in the computer into which you can insert devices that comply with the specified standard.

Most today's computers the problem is firstly described in an understandable way, providing information in binary form, and then it is processed using logic and simple algebra. Since almost all mathematics can be reduced to performing Boolean operations, using the fast electronic computer most math problems can be solved. The result of calculations is presented to the user by information input devices - printers, lamp indicators, monitors, projectors.

However, it was found that computers cannot solve any math problem... The English mathematician Alan Turing described the first problems that cannot be solved with a computer.

Application of computers

The first computers were created only for computation (as the name implies), and the first high-level language programming became Fortran, which was intended only for production mathematical calculations.

Then computers found another use - databases. First of all, banks and governments needed them. The databases required more than complex computers with developed systems of information storage and input-output. The Cobol language corresponding to these requirements was developed. After a while, database management systems (DBMS) appeared, which had their own programming languages.

Another use of computers is control various devices... This area has evolved gradually, from highly specialized devices (often analog) to standard computer systems, with the help of which control programs are launched. In addition, more and more modern technology includes a control computer.

Today, the development of the computer has reached such a level that it is the main information tool both at home and in the office. Thus, almost all work with information is carried out through a computer - from typing texts to watching films. This also applies to the storage and transmission of information.

Scientists use modern supercomputers to simulate complex biological and physical processes such as climate change or nuclear reactions. Some projects are carried out using distributed computing, in which a large number of not very powerful computers simultaneously solve different parts of the same problem, thereby forming one powerful computer.

The most difficult and not yet highly developed direction of using computers is Artificial Intelligence- the use of computers in solving problems that do not have a clear relative simple algorithm... Examples of such tasks are games, expert systems, Machine translate text.

A computer (from the English computer - calculator) is a programmable electronic computing device designed for storing and transmitting information, as well as data processing. That is, a computer is a complex of software-controlled electronic devices.

The term "personal computer" is a synonym for the abbreviation "computer" (electronic computer). When personal computers appeared, the term computer soon fell out of use, being replaced by the term "computer", "PC" or "PC".

A computer can use calculations to process information according to a certain algorithm. In addition, the software allows the computer to store, receive and search information, as well as output it to various input devices. The name of computers comes from their main function - computing, but today, in addition to computing, computers are used to process information, as well as for games.

The computer circuit was proposed in 1949 by the mathematician John von Neumann, and since then the principle of the device has hardly changed.

According to von Neumann's principles, a computer should consist of the following devices:

arithmetic logic unit that performs logical and arithmetic operations;

a storage device for storing data;

a control device organizing the process of executing programs;

information input-output devices.

Computer memory must consist of a certain number of numbered cells, each of which contains program instructions or data to be processed. The cells are available to all devices on the computer.

Most computers are designed according to the principle of open architecture:

a description of the configuration and operating principle of a PC, which allows you to assemble a computer from individual parts and assemblies;

the presence of expansion slots in the computer into which you can insert devices that comply with the specified standard.

In most computers today, the problem is first described in an understandable way, providing information in binary form, and then it is processed using logic and simple algebra. Since almost all mathematics can be reduced to performing Boolean operations, most mathematical problems can be solved with the help of a fast electronic computer. The result of calculations is presented to the user by information input devices - printers, lamp indicators, monitors, projectors.

However, it was found that computers cannot solve any mathematical problem. The English mathematician Alan Turing described the first problems that cannot be solved with a computer.

Application of computers

The first computers were created only for computation (as the name implies), and Fortran became the first high-level programming language, which was intended only for the production of mathematical calculations.

Then computers found another use - databases. First of all, banks and governments needed them. Databases required more sophisticated computers with advanced information storage and input-output systems. The Cobol language corresponding to these requirements was developed. After a while, database management systems (DBMS) appeared, which had their own programming languages.

Another use of computers is to control various devices. This area has evolved gradually, from highly specialized devices (often analog) to standard computer systems that run control programs. In addition, more and more modern technology includes a control computer.

Today, the development of the computer has reached such a level that it is the main information tool both at home and in the office. Thus, almost all work with information is carried out through a computer - from typing texts to watching films. This also applies to the storage and transmission of information.

Scientists use modern supercomputers to simulate complex biological and physical processes such as climate change or nuclear reactions. Some projects are carried out using distributed computing, in which a large number of not very powerful computers simultaneously solve different parts of the same problem, thereby forming one powerful computer.

The most difficult and not yet highly developed area of ​​application of computers is artificial intelligence - the use of computers in solving problems that do not have a clear relatively simple algorithm. Examples of such tasks are games, expert systems, machine translation of text.

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Test Job - ICT Assignments

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Final work: preparation of an essay "History of the development of computer technology"

1. In a word processor, create a new document and sequentially copy the contents of the files Introductory.rtf, Beginning of the era of EBM.rtf, First generation of EBM.rtf, Second generation of EBM.rtf, Third generation of EBM.rtf, Fourth generation of EBM.rtf, Conclusion .rtf.

2. Save the work result in a personal folder under the name Referat.rtf.

3. Decap each of the six sections of the document (the section names can be the same as the names of the corresponding files).

4. Format the document according to the requirements for the abstract.

5. Add the title page you prepared earlier (Title.rtf) to the beginning of the document.

6. Add a header to the document pages with the abstract title.

7. After the words "The first electronic computing machine (ECM)" in the section "Beginning of the computer era" add a footnote explaining how the concepts of "computer" and "computer" are related.

8. On the Internet, find information about S. A. Lebedev and add it to the text of the abstract.

9. Find out when and by whom the first mass personal computer was developed, and add this information to the appropriate section of the abstract.

10. Find images of computers of different generations on the Internet. Insert one of the most interesting images in the appropriate sections.

11. Add the section "Comparative characteristics of computer generations" to the abstract and include the table in it:

12. Find the necessary information on the Internet and enter it in the appropriate cells of the table.

13. Add a section "References and Internet resources" and include a list of sources of information that you used in preparing the abstract.

14. Apply style formatting to each section heading by choosing the Heading 1 style. Generate a new "Table of Contents" section automatically.

15. Save the file with the changes in your personal folder, print it and submit it to the teacher for review.

Completion of items 1–5 of the job description corresponds to the mark "satisfactory"; items 1–10 - "good"; items 1–14 - "excellent".

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