The most important component of any computer is its processor (microprocessor)- a software-controlled information processing device made in the form of one or more large-scale or ultra-large-scale integrated circuits.
The processor includes the following components:
control device- generates and supplies to all PC elements at the right times certain control signals (control pulses), determined by the specifics of the operation being performed and the results of previous operations;
arithmetic logic unit (ALU)- designed to perform all arithmetic and logical operations on numeric and symbolic information;
coprocessor- an additional block necessary for complex mathematical calculations and when working with graphic and multimedia programs;
general purpose registers- high-speed memory cells, used mainly as various counters and pointers to the PC address space, access to which can significantly increase the speed of the program being executed;
cache memory- a high-speed memory block for short-term storage, recording and output of information being processed at a given time or used in calculations. This improves processor performance;
data bus- interface system that implements data exchange with other PC devices;
clock generator(impulses);
interrupt controller;
The main characteristics of the processor are:
Clock frequency- the number of elementary operations (cycles) that the processor performs in one second. Clock speed is measured in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz). The higher the clock speed, the faster the processor runs. This statement is true for one generation of processors, since different processor models require different numbers of clock cycles to perform certain actions.
Bit depth- the number of binary digits (bits) of information that is processed (or transmitted) in one clock cycle. Bit size also determines the number of binary bits that can be used in the processor to address RAM.
The processors are also characterized by: type of processor core(production technology determined by the thickness of the minimum elements of the microprocessor); bus frequency, where they work; cache size;belonging to a certain family(as well as generation and modification); "form factor"(device and appearance standard) and additional features(for example, the presence of a special system of “multimedia commands” designed to optimize work with graphics, video and sound).
Today, almost all desktop IBM PC-compatible computers have processors from two main manufacturers (two families) - Intel And AMD.
Over the entire history of the development of the IBM PC, there have been eight main generations in the Intel microprocessor family (from i8088 to Pentium IV). In addition, Intel Corporation has produced and continues to produce spin-off generations of Pentium processors (Pentium Pro, Pentium MMX, Intel Celeron, etc.). Generations of Intel microprocessors differ in speed, architecture, form factor, etc. Moreover, various modifications are produced in each generation.
A competitor to Intel microprocessors today is the AMD family of microprocessors: Athlon, Sempron, Opteron (Shanghai), Phenom.
Intel and AMD microprocessors are not compatible (even though both are IBM PC compatible and support the same programs) and require matching motherboards and sometimes memory.
For PCs such as Macintosh (Apple), their own processors of the family are produced Mac.
What is a processor? Here you can read a short terminology of this concept. We will look at what it consists of, what the processor core is, the system bus, the processor cache, what sockets the processor has, as well as popular manufacturers. Now, let's get down to business.
Processor (CPU orCPU) is a device or circuit that executes machine commands (instructions). It is the most important component of any computer and laptop. Performs any, both logical and arithmetic operations. Also controls all devices connected to the PC.
At the moment, processors are a circuit (microprocessor) and is a small thin plate, square in shape. This diagram contains elements that ensure the functionality of the processor itself and the PC as a whole. Such a plate is protected by a plastic or ceramic case, connected by gold wires with metal tips. This design allows you to attach the processor to the motherboard.
What does the processor consist of?
- Registers
- Arithmetic logic unit
- Data and address buses
- Cache memory
- Math coprocessor
Specialists in different professions have slightly different concepts of processor architecture. For example, programmers think that processor architecture is when the processor is capable of executing sets of machine codes. Developers of computer components think differently, namely, that the architecture of the processor reflects any properties and qualities that are inherent in the entire family of processors (in other words, the organization of processors or their internal design). For example, there is such an architecture as the Intel Pentium, it is designated as P5. For example, Pentium IV is designated as NetBurst.
Pentium 4 processor architecture model
Even if the processors have the same architecture, they may have differences. First of all, this is, of course, a difference in processors, which endow the processor itself with some characteristics. Of course, they may differ in cache sizes and differences in system bus frequency. In fact, the term processor core does not have a clear definition, but it can help highlight the features of a particular model. 
If you replace the core, you will most likely have to change the processor socket, which entails certain difficulties related to the compatibility of motherboards. Of course, developers are constantly working on improving kernels. Such innovations are called kernel revisions; they, in turn, are designated by letter and numerical values.
What is a system bus?
System bus or processor bus (FSB) – is a set of signal lines combined according to their purpose. In simple words, the system bus connects all computer components to the processor, be it, or. The processor is connected only to the system bus, other devices are connected through special controllers.
What is a processor socket?
There are two types of connectors (sockets) – nesting And slotted. Although this can be considered as one socket, because it is created only for installing a processor. The presence of a socket makes it much easier to replace the processor. It could also be removed while the computer is being repaired. By the way, if anything, this connector is located on . Intel and AMD have their own types of connectors, which can be viewed.
What is a processor register?
A register in a processor is a block of cells that forms ultra-fast RAM. This memory is used only by the processor.
What is processor cache?
Cash– this is a technology that is mandatory in all modern processors; it is also called fast memory. Cache technology is a buffer between the processor and the controller, which is slow memory. The buffer is a storage of data blocks that are being processed right now, so the processor does not need to contact the controller. This property greatly increases processor performance.
There are currently several levels of cache. L1 – first level cache, is the fastest and works directly with the kernel. Next comes second level cache - L2, which interacts with L1. This cache is much larger in size than L1. Sometimes it can occur third level cache - L3. It's quite slow and even larger than L2, but again, it's faster than system memory.
Also, the cache is divided into exclusive And not exclusive.
The first type includes a cache in which the data is divided into original ones in strict order. A non-exclusive cache is a cache whose data can be repeated at all cache levels. For example, Intel uses a non-exclusive type, but AMD uses a correspondingly exclusive one. It's hard to say which is better; both have advantages and disadvantages.
Today, millions of residents of developed countries have one or even several personal computers and laptops in their homes, which is not surprising, since these devices are now used for a variety of purposes: from entertainment to scientific and communication. However, a significant part of PC owners do not know their device, since when problems arise they prefer to contact specialists. This approach is quite reasonable. But it’s still worth finding out what the main components of this iron and intellectual “friend” of man are. For example, many are interested in what a processor (CPU) is, what types it comes in, and how to choose it correctly.
Where is the PC's brains?
Obviously, in order to carry out a huge number of operations smoothly and without human intervention, a certain control center is needed, which, like the brain, will transmit commands to various system components and peripheral devices. In a computer, this role is assigned to the processor, which performs all logical and arithmetic operations specified by a special program. In addition, it controls all other PC devices.
How it works
To understand what a computer processor is, you need to know how it works. Unlike their counterparts of past decades, modern devices of this type are miniature in size. At first glance, a microprocessor is a rectangular thin plate of durable crystalline silicon. On its relatively small area there are circuits that provide the functionality of the “brain” of a personal computer. The plate is enclosed in a ceramic or plastic flat case, to which it is connected via very thin gold wires equipped with metal tips. Thanks to this design, the processor is easily and securely connected to the PC motherboard.
Components
Those who have already learned what a processor is want to understand what components it consists of. Despite its small size, this device includes many components. Among them:
- address buses;
- registers;
- data buses;
- arithmetic-logical unit;
- cache, or fast memory, having a small volume of 8-512 KB;
- mathematical coprocessor;
- command counters.
CPU core
This term hides many concepts. If we are talking about what a processor is and what parts it consists of, then the core is its component, designed to execute one stream of commands. In addition, there are multi-core variants capable of executing multiple threads of commands.
The "nuclear" characteristics include:
- command system;
- microarchitecture;
- number of functional blocks;
- supply voltage;
- volume of built-in cache memory;
- crystal area;
- logical and physical interface;
- maximum and typical heat dissipation;
- clock frequencies;
- production technology.
At the same time, in the physical sense, the words “processor core” mean its part containing the main functional blocks or usually an open microprocessor chip. In any case, it is a necessary part of the “brain” of the PC. Thus, the question “what is a nuclear processor” sounds somewhat incorrect, if, of course, only the CPU is considered, and not all those devices and programs that are also called processors.
System bus
Anyone who has already learned what a computer processor is will probably be interested in how it controls the rest of the PC components. Obviously, such a task can only be done by a complex system. It is called the processor bus and is a collection of signal lines combined according to their purpose. Each of them has a specific data transfer protocol and electrical characteristics. Only the CPU is connected to the processor bus itself, or, as it is also called, the system bus, and all other devices are connected through the motherboard controllers. At the same time, there are options when the memory is connected directly to the processor, which ensures its greater efficiency. Here it is appropriate to ask the question of what the processor bit capacity is, since, for example, the expression “processor bit capacity x 64” means that this device is equipped with a 64-bit data bus, and it processes this number of bits in a single clock cycle.
Cache
Fast memory, or cache, is a buffer between the processor and the system memory controller, which is quite slow. This component is designed to increase the overall performance of the entire device. To achieve this goal, blocks of data that are currently being processed are transferred and stored in the buffer, and therefore the processor is not forced to constantly access system memory.
The cache is divided into three levels:
- First level L1
It is divided into two caches - instructions and data, is the fastest and works directly with the processor core.
- Second level L2
The L2 cache interacts with L1. It is many times larger in volume and is holistic.
- Third level L3
Some modern microprocessors also have a third level, which is larger than the previous two, but works an order of magnitude slower. The fact is that the tire between the 2nd and 3rd levels is narrower than between the 1st and 2nd. However, Level 3 speed is still significantly faster than system memory speed. Depending on whether the information entering the cache is repeated at different levels or not, two types of this component of the processor are distinguished: exclusive and non-exclusive. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it is difficult to say which one is better. We can only note that the first type is used in AMD microprocessors, and the second - in Intel.
Connector
When talking about what a computer processor is, you should pay attention to all the components, since this complex device functions only thanks to the coordinated work of each of them. For example, it would seem, what importance could such a primitive device as a connector have? However, its use makes it easier to replace the processor when upgrading a PC or removing it for repairs.
What is processor frequency
To compare any technical devices and to give an idea of their capabilities, certain characteristics that have a numerical expression are used. For processors, the main one is the clock speed. Moreover, this concept has fundamental differences when it comes to single-core and multi-core options. So what is the clock speed of a processor if it can only execute one thread of instructions? It turns out that this parameter shows how many calculations a specific single-core device can perform per unit of time. Accordingly, the higher the clock frequency, the more operations the processor can perform per unit time. Most often it is 1.0-4 GHz and is determined by multiplying the external frequency by a certain constant value. It's a completely different matter if you need to find out what the processor clock speed is. In this case, some would-be specialists recommend calculating this parameter for the entire device, multiplying the data for the single-core version by the number of components. However, this is fundamentally wrong, since the clock speed of the entire device does not change depending on the number of cores, and the positive effect concerns only processor performance. To top it off, it should be noted that when choosing a processor, frequency should not be a decisive factor, but rather the values of all its characteristics should be considered as a whole.
What is a GPU
As you know, modern PCs provide excellent “pictures”. This is achieved through the graphics processor - a special device that performs graphic rendering. In addition, they are intended for use as a 3D graphics accelerator. Thanks to their pipeline architecture, such devices process images and other graphics much more efficiently than the CPU discussed above.
Word processor: what is it?
There is currently some confusion in matters related to PC architecture, since the same terms are often used to refer to completely different things. In particular, the term processor also refers to programs for formatting texts, changing fonts, paragraphs, spell checking and much more. The most famous examples are OpenOffice.org, Writer and the super popular Microsoft Word. Therefore, the name can be safely cited when you need to answer the question of what a word processor is.
A few words about the most common personal computer processors
The first place in popularity is occupied by the Intel Core i5 processor. It is considered an excellent option when you need a powerful gaming machine. It is followed by a model from Intel - the Celeron E3200, which is not cheap, but is the best choice for serious office work. Another processor from Intel, the quad-core Core 2 Quad, also has a lot of fans among specialists. If you are not looking to own a super-powerful machine and want to save money, then pay attention to the AMD Athlon II X2215 or AMD Phenom II X4945.
Now you know what a processor is, what types there are and what characteristics it has.
- Introduction
- Main characteristics, processor power
- How to choose a processor
- Some tips for overclocking processors
- Conclusion
Introduction to the concept of computer processor
Greetings friends! Today we will discuss with you such an interesting and important question: what is a processor in a computer. It is more correct to call it a central processing unit (CPU, also called chip, stone, processor, and so on).
So, the processor is the main chip that processes and manages the main processes in the computer. More clearly, the processor is called the brain of a personal computer (PC), by analogy with the human brain, which also performs the main work of processing and managing data for us.
The CPU is very important for a PC; it determines how quickly it will work and carry out many everyday tasks. Although, of course, the computer still has several important components (RAM, video card), which also affect the speed of the entire system.
In order for a PC to constantly keep up with the times in speed and performance, the CPU and other parts are changed from time to time. More on this below.
CPU Specifications and Power
The main characteristics of the CPU are:
- Clock frequency
That is, this is the number of operations performed per second. Now this parameter is already measured in billions. For example, if you observed technical data about a processor, you could see its value of 2.5 GHz - this means 2.5 billion operations per second (but this is still very small compared to the human brain, whose performance is thousand times more).
Enough. The most powerful processors today can have a clock frequency of 4 or 4.5 GHz, which is usually required for powerful computer games and programs; for everyday work this is unnecessary.
- Number of Cores
Just about 10 years ago, almost no one even thought about the appearance of two or more nuclear CPUs. Manufacturers increased the clock frequency until they encountered the limit of this process. Then a new direction appeared - the creation of two or more cores in a chip.
On the one hand, this is very good. Because it allows the processor to work twice as fast. But on the other hand, this cannot be realized without appropriate software support. The thing is that any computer parts do not work on their own.
They are able to function only if special software instructions are written for this. If there are none, then there will be no sense in any new technology at all. So here, if you run programs on a dual-core CPU that are designed for single-core CPUs, then they will only work for one core, that is, there will be no increase in speed, the second core will simply not be used.
This is roughly how things stand with the advent of multi-chip CPUs. Although this problem has now been resolved. Almost all released programs are optimized for running on multi-core processors (where needed). Of course, these are games, video processing, imaging, modeling, development, and so on.
- Energy consumption
It is important to understand that as power increases, so do the costs of the energy required for operation. This is very important because high energy consumption only leads to wasted money and increased heat generation. Therefore, developers are constantly working to reduce energy consumption.
- Bit depth
In short, this is the processor’s support for one or another operating architecture. Usually it is 32 or 64 bit. 64-bit has great potential; it is now widely used. All modern CPUs support 64 bits, so this is a clear question and you can’t go wrong. You can understand this issue in more detail in the article, what is the difference between a 32-bit and 64-bit operating system.
How to choose a processor
In general, there is a wide variety of them for every taste and need. But for slightly demanding requests, it is not difficult to choose. First, you should decide for what purposes the computer will be used, if only for work and minor entertainment (small games, watching movies, music, surfing the Internet), then everything is simple - the most inexpensive modern chip will suit you.
If you are doing serious, complex work that requires a powerful, balanced computer, then this is a little more difficult. You need to pay attention to the following points:
- Multi-core - 4 or more cores
- High clock frequency - 2.5 gigahertz and above
- Third level cache of at least 6 megabytes
By complying with these basic recommendations, you can at least somehow count on a good and productive copy. But it would be more correct to choose a model and look at information about it on the Internet, for example, performance tests, reviews, etc.
- It must fit the connector on the motherboard; this must be 100% clarified before purchasing. There are 2 main CPU manufacturers on the market - Intel and AMD. Each of these companies produces different lines of CPUs with a specific connector, which you need to know and select a motherboard for it, that is, a board where it is subsequently installed for permanent operation.
- The processor is a fragile part, so under no circumstances should we drop it, knock on it, or throw it in a bag.
- After installing it, you must apply thermal paste (heat-conducting paste) to it; we read what this is in the article cleaning from dust and replacing it in a laptop, the logic is the same. If you forget about applying thermal paste, the CPU will overheat and work unstably, and ultimately burn out. Moreover, dried thermal paste and dust are one of the main reasons for the breakdown of laptops and computers.
- It is important to choose the right cooling for your CPU. The fact is that processors of different series can heat up differently. Accordingly, the cooler (this is a fan with a radiator for cooling) is selected individually for it. This is not difficult if you know its heat dissipation; you need to buy a cooler with the same value or higher.
In general, overclocking is an independent increase in its technical characteristics, usually by increasing the clock frequency, voltage, or unlocking the cores (if such a possibility exists).
We strongly do not recommend doing this unless it is permitted by the manufacturer. If you act contrary to this, you may simply ruin it. It’s another matter when the manufacturer itself allows you to do this; moreover, they have introduced a special function for this; sometimes you just need to press one button or select the appropriate value.
In this case, yes, if you consider it necessary to increase the characteristics of the CPU, then this can be done. But again, don’t forget about cooling and thermal paste. If you do not make sure of these points, then again you can ruin the CPU.
Conclusion
Based on the information presented above, we hope you can form a general idea of what a processor is, what its characteristics are and how to use it correctly.
The central processing unit is a key component of any personal computer. In this material we will talk about the main characteristics of modern processors, their technological features and basic functionality.
Introduction
Any computer device, be it a laptop, desktop PC or tablet, consists of several important components that are responsible for its functionality and overall performance. But perhaps the most important of them all is the central processing unit (CPU, CPU, or CPU), the device that is responsible for all basic calculations and executes machine instructions (program code). It is not without reason that the processor is considered the brain of the computer and the main part of its hardware.
As a rule, when choosing a computer, we first of all pay attention to what kind of processor is at its heart, since the capabilities and functionality of your future PC will directly depend on its performance. That is why a person who has information about modern processor manufacturers and development trends in this market will be able to competently determine not only the capabilities of a particular computer device, but also assess the prospects of a future purchase of a new PC or updating an old one.
It is quite obvious that processors installed in all kinds of computer and electronic devices differ from each other not only in their performance, but also in their design features, as well as operating principles. As part of this series, we will get acquainted with processors built on the basis architecturex86, which form the basis of most modern desktop computers, laptops and netbooks, as well as some tablets.
Surely, many readers, especially those who are just starting to get acquainted with computers, have a certain prejudice that understanding all these “processor intricacies” is the lot of experienced users, because it is very difficult. But is everything really that problematic?
On the one hand, of course, a processor is a very complex device and it is really not easy to thoroughly study all its technical characteristics. The situation is further aggravated by the fact that the number of CPU models that you can now find on the modern market is very large, since several generations of chips are on sale at the same time. But on the other hand, processors have only a few key characteristics, which, having understood, the average user will be able to independently assess the capabilities of a particular processor model and make the right choice without getting confused in all the model diversity.
Main characteristics of processors
The x86 architecture was first implemented in its own processors by Intel in the late 70s, and was based on complex instruction set computing (CISC). This architecture got its name from the last two digits that ended the code names of the models of early Intel products - experienced users probably remember the 286th (80286), 386th (80386) and 486th (80486) “personal computers”, which were the dream of any computer geek in the late 80s and early 90s.
To date, the x86 architecture has also been implemented in processors from AMD, VIA, SiS, Cyrix and many others.
The main characteristics of processors by which they are usually divided in the modern market are:
- company manufacturer
- series
- number of computing cores
- type of installation connector (socket)
- clock frequency.
Manufacturer (brand) . Today, all desktop and laptop central processors are divided into two large camps under the Intel and AMD brands, which together cover about 92% of the total global microprocessor market. Despite the fact that Intel's share is approximately 80%, these two companies have been competing with each other for many years, with varying success, trying to lure buyers under their banners.
Series - is one of the key characteristics of the central processor. As a rule, both manufacturers divide their products into several groups according to their performance, targeting different categories of users and different market segments. Each of these groups constitutes a family or series with its own distinctive name, by which one can understand not only the price niche of the product, but also, in general, its functionality.
Today, Intel products are based on five main families - Pentium (Dual-Core), Celeron (Dual-Core), Core i3, Core i5 And Core i7. The first three are aimed at budget home and office solutions, the last two are the basis of productive systems.
CPUIntel Core i7
The line of chips stands somewhat apart from the main families Atom, which differs from the others in low energy consumption and low cost. These processors are designed for installation in budget systems where high performance is not required, but low power consumption is required. These include netbooks, nettops, tablet PCs and communicators.
It is impossible not to mention another family of processors from the company from Santa Clara - Core 2. Despite the fact that it is no longer produced, and can be found for sale only at various flea markets, this family is still deservedly popular among users, and many current home computers are equipped with processors of this particular series.
AMD, to fans of its products, offers series processors Athlon II, Phenom II, A-Series And FX-Series. The path of the first two families is coming to a logical conclusion, while the last two are only gaining momentum. In some places you can still find the most budget processors on sale Sempron, although their days are practically numbered.
CPUAMD FX-Series
Like Intel, AMD also has its own “mobile” series called E-series, whose microprocessors are characterized by reduced power consumption and are designed for installation in inexpensive desktop and laptop PCs.
Number of computing cores . Even in the last decade, there was no division of processors by the number of cores at all, since they were all single-core. But times are changing, and today single-core CPUs can be called an anachronism, and they have been replaced by multi-core counterparts. The most common of them are dual- and quad-core chips. Processors with three, six and eight computing cores are somewhat less common.
The presence of several cores in a processor at once is designed to increase its performance, and as you understand, the more there are, the higher it is. True, when working with old software that is not optimized for multi-core computing, this rule may not work.
Connector type . Any processor is installed on a motherboard, on which there is a special connector (socket) or, in other words, a socket (Socket). Processors from different manufacturers, series and generations are installed in different types of sockets. Now, for desktop PCs, there are seven of them - four for Intel chips and three for AMD.
The main and most common socket for Intel central processors is LGA 1155. The most productive and advanced solutions of this company are installed in the LGA 2011 socket. The remaining two types of sockets - LGA 775 and LGA 1156 are living out their last days, since the production of processors for these types of sockets is almost discontinued.
Among AMD products, today the most used type of connector can be called Socket AM3. As a rule, most of the company's budget and most popular products are installed in it. True, this situation is likely to change in the near future, since all the latest processors and productive solutions have Socket AM3+ and Socket FM1 connectors.
By the way, Intel and AMD processors can be very easily distinguished by one characteristic feature, which you may have already noticed when looking at the photographs. AMD products have many pins on the back with which they are connected to the motherboard (inserted into the connector). Intel uses a fundamentally different solution, since the contact pins are not located on the processor itself, but inside the motherboard connector.
We will not consider connectors for mobile solutions here, since this does not make any practical sense. After all, the type of socket is important for the user only if you plan to independently replace (upgrade) the processor in your computer. In portable devices, this is quite difficult to do, and the mobile versions of the processors themselves are almost impossible to buy at retail.
Clock frequency - a characteristic that determines the performance of a processor, measured in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz) and showing the number of operations it can perform per second. True, comparing the performance of different processor models only by their clock speed is fundamentally wrong.
The fact is that to perform one operation, different chips may require different numbers of clock cycles. In addition, modern systems use pipeline and parallel processing when calculating, and can perform several operations at once in one clock cycle. All this leads to the fact that different processor models with the same clock speed can show completely different performance.
Summary table of desktop processor families
Technological process(production technology)
In the production of microcircuits and, in particular, microprocessor chips in industrial conditions, photolithography is used - a method by which, using lithographic equipment, conductors, insulators and semiconductors are applied to a thin silicon substrate, which form the core of the processor. In turn, the lithographic equipment used has a certain resolution, which determines the name of the technological process used.
Intel
Why is the technological process by which processors are made so important? Constant improvement of technology makes it possible to proportionally reduce the size of semiconductor structures, which helps reduce the size of processor cores and their power consumption, as well as reduce their cost. In turn, reducing power consumption reduces the heat dissipation of the processor, which allows you to increase their clock frequency, and therefore computing power. Also, low heat generation allows the use of more productive solutions in mobile computers (laptops, netbooks, tablets).
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Silicon wafer with processor chipsAMD
The first Intel processor with x86 architecture, which is still the basis for all modern CPUs, was produced in the late 70s using a 3 micrometer (micrometer) process technology. By the early 2000s, almost all leading chip manufacturers, including AMD and Intel, had mastered the 0.13 micron or 130 nm process technology. Most modern processors are manufactured using 32 nm technology, and since mid-2012, 22 nm technology.
The transition to a finer technical process is always a significant event for microprocessor manufacturers. After all, this, as noted earlier, leads to a reduction in the cost of producing chips and an improvement in their key characteristics, which means it makes the developer’s products more competitive in the market.
Energy consumption and heat dissipation
At an early stage of their development, microprocessors consumed very little energy. But with an increase in clock frequencies and the number of transistors in the core of chips, this figure began to grow rapidly. The energy consumption factor, which was practically not taken into account at first, today has a colossal influence on the evolution of processors.
The higher the processor's power consumption, the more heat it generates, which can lead to overheating and failure of both the processor itself and the surrounding chips. To remove heat, special cooling systems are used, the size of which directly depends on the amount of heat generated by the processor.
In the early 2000s, the heat dissipation of some processors rose above 150 W, and massive and noisy fans had to be used to cool them. Moreover, the average power of power supplies of that time was 300 W, which means that more than half of it had to be spent on servicing the “gluttonous” processor.
It was then that it became clear that further increasing the computing power of processors was impossible without reducing their energy consumption. Developers were forced to radically reconsider processor architectures and begin to actively implement technologies that help reduce heat dissipation.
Processors operating at ultra-high clock frequencies have to be cooled with such giant cooling systems.
To assess the heat dissipation of processors, a value was introduced that characterizes the performance requirements of cooling systems and was called TDP. TDP shows how much heat a particular cooling system should be designed to dissipate when used with a specific processor model. For example, the TDP of processors for mobile PCs should be less than 45 W, since the use of large and heavy cooling systems in laptops or netbooks is impossible.
Today, in the era of the heyday of portable devices (laptops, nettops, tablets), developers have managed to achieve tremendous results in the field of reducing energy consumption. This was facilitated by: the transition to a more refined technological process in the production of crystals, the introduction of new materials to reduce leakage currents, changes in the layout of processors, the use of various sensors and intelligent systems that monitor temperature and voltage, as well as the introduction of other energy-saving technologies. All these measures allow developers to continue to increase the processing power of processors and use more powerful solutions in compact devices.
In practice, it’s worth taking into account the thermal characteristics of the processor when purchasing if you want to build a silent, compact system, or, for example, if you want your future laptop to run as long as possible on battery power.
Processor architecture and codenames
Each processor is based on the so-called processor architecture - a set of qualities and properties inherent to an entire family of microchips. Architecture directly determines the internal design and organization of processors.
Traditionally, Intel and AMD give code names to their various processor architectures. This allows you to more accurately systematize modern processor solutions. For example, processors of the same family with the same clock speed and number of cores can be manufactured using different technological processes, and therefore have different architecture and performance. Also, the use of sonorous names in the names of architectures makes it possible for manufacturers to more effectively present their new developments to us users.
Intel's developments bear geographical names of places (mountains, rivers, cities, etc.) located near the locations of its production structures responsible for the development of the corresponding architecture. For example, the first Core 2 Duo processors were built on the Conroe architecture, which was named after a city located in the US state of Texas.
AMD does not have any clear tendency to form names for its developments. Thematic focus may change from generation to generation. For example, the company's new processors are codenamed Liano and Trinity.
Multi-level cache
While performing calculations, the microprocessor must constantly access memory to read or write data. In modern computers, the main function of storing data and interacting with the processor is performed by RAM.
Despite the high speed of data exchange between these two components, the processor often has to idle, waiting for information requested from memory. In turn, this leads to a decrease in computation speed and overall system performance.
To improve this situation, all modern processors have a cache - a small intermediate memory buffer with very fast access, used to store the most frequently accessed data. When the processor needs some data, it first looks for copies of them in the cache, since from there the necessary information will be retrieved much faster than from RAM.
Most microprocessors for modern computers have a multi-level cache, consisting of two or three independent memory buffers, each of which is responsible for accelerating certain processes. For example, the first level cache (L1) may be responsible for accelerating the loading of machine instructions, the second (L2) - accelerating the writing and reading of data, and the third (L3) - accelerating the translation of virtual addresses into physical ones.
One of the most fundamental problems facing developers is finding optimal cache sizes. On the one hand, a large cache can contain more data, which means that the percentage of the processor finding what it needs among them is higher. On the other hand, the larger the cache size, the greater the delay when retrieving data from it.
Therefore, caches of different levels have different sizes, with the first level cache being the smallest but also the fastest, and the third level being the largest but also the slowest. The search for data in them occurs according to the principle from smallest to largest. That is, the processor first tries to find the information it needs in the L1 cache, then in L2 and then in L3 (if available). If there is no necessary data in all buffers, the RAM is accessed.
In general, the efficiency of the cache, especially the 3rd level, depends on the nature of program access to memory and the processor architecture. For example, in some applications the presence of an L3 cache can bring a 20% performance increase, while in others it may not have an effect at all. Therefore, in practice, it is hardly worthwhile to be guided by the characteristics of a multi-level cache when choosing a processor for your computer.
Integrated Graphics
With the development of production technologies and the resulting reduction in chip sizes, manufacturers have the opportunity to place additional chips inside the processor. The first of these was the graphics core, which is responsible for displaying images on the monitor.
This solution allows you to reduce the overall cost of the computer, since in this case there is no need to use a dedicated video card. It is obvious that hybrid processors are aimed at use in budget systems and the corporate sector, where graphics performance is secondary.
The first example of integrating a video processor into a “normal” CPU was demonstrated by Intel at the beginning of 2010. Of course, this did not bring any revolution, since up to this point graphics had long been successfully integrated into motherboard chipsets.
Once upon a time, the difference in functionality between integrated and discrete graphics was fundamental. Today, we can only talk about the different performance of these solutions, since the built-in video chips are capable of displaying images on multiple monitors in any available resolutions, performing 3D acceleration and hardware video encoding. In fact, in terms of performance and capabilities, integrated solutions can be compared with low-end video card models.
Intel integrates a graphics core of its own design into its processors under the simple name IntelHDGraphics. At the same time, Core 2, Celeron processors and older Core i7 models do not have built-in graphics cores.
AMD, having merged in 2006 with the video card manufacturing giant, the Canadian company ATI, is integrating video chips from the Radeon HD family into its solutions. Moreover, some of the company's new processors combine x86 processor cores and Radeon graphics cores on a single chip. A single element created by merging the central (CPU) and graphics (GPU) processors is called APU, Accelerated Processor Unit. This is exactly what (APU) is now called the A and E-series processors.
In general, integrated graphics solutions from AMD are more powerful than Intel HD and appear preferable in gaming applications.
ModeTurbo
Many modern processors are equipped with technology that allows them to automatically increase their clock speed above the rated speed in some cases, resulting in increased application performance. In fact, this technology is “self-overclocking” of the processor. System operating time in Turbo mode varies depending on operating conditions, workload, and platform design.
Intel uses its own intelligent overclocking technology called Turbo Boost in its processors. It is used in the productive Core i5 and Core i7 families.
By monitoring parameters related to the CPU load (voltage and current, temperature, power), the built-in control system increases the clock speed of the cores when the maximum thermal package (TDP) of the processor has not yet been reached. If there are unloaded cores, they are disabled and free up their potential for those that are used by applications. The fewer cores are involved in calculations, the higher the clock speed of the chips involved in the calculations rises. For single-threaded applications, the speedup can be as high as 667 MHz.
AMD also has its own technology for dynamic overclocking of the most loaded cores and uses it only in its 6 and 8-core chips, which include the Phenom II X6 and FX series. It is called Turbo Core and can only work if the number of loaded cores during the calculation process is less than half of their total number. That is, in the case of 6-core processors, the number of inactive cores must be at least three, and for 8-core processors - four. Unlike Intel Turbo Boost, in this technology the frequency increase is not affected by the number of free cores and it is always the same. Its value depends on the processor model and ranges from 300 to 600 MHz.
Conclusion
In conclusion, let's try to put the practically acquired knowledge to good use. For example, one popular computer electronics store sells two Intel Core i5 processors with the same clock frequency of 2.8 GHz. Let's look at their descriptions taken from the store's website and try to understand their differences.
If you look closely at the screenshots, despite the fact that both processors belong to the same family, they don’t have much in common: clock speed and number of cores. The rest of the characteristics vary, but the first thing you should pay attention to is the types of connectors in which both processors are installed.
Intel Core i5 760 has a Socket 1156 connector, which means it belongs to an outdated generation of processors. Buying it will be justified only if you already have a motherboard with such a socket in your computer, and you do not want to change it.
The newer Core i5 2300 is produced using a thinner process technology (32 nm versus 45 nm), which means it has a more advanced architecture. Despite the slightly smaller L3 cache and self-overclocking, this processor will certainly not be inferior in performance to its predecessor, and the presence of integrated graphics will allow you to do without purchasing a separate video card.
Despite the fact that both processors have the same heat dissipation (95 W), the Core i5 2300 will be cooler than its predecessor in equal conditions, since we already know that a more modern technological process ensures lower power consumption. In turn, this increases its overclocking potential, which cannot but please computer enthusiasts.
Now let's look at an example based on AMD processors. Here we have specifically selected processors from two different families - Athlon II X4 and Phenom II X4. In theory, the Phenom line is more productive than the Athlon, but let's look at their characteristics and decide whether everything is so clear.
From the characteristics it is clear that both processors have the same clock speed and number of processing cores, almost identical heat dissipation, and both do not have a built-in graphics core.
The first difference that immediately catches your eye is that the processors are installed in different sockets. Despite the fact that both of them (sockets) are currently actively supported by motherboard manufacturers, of this pair, Socket FM1 looks somewhat preferable from the point of view of future upgrades, since new A-series processors (APUs) can be installed there.
Another advantage of the Athlon II X4 651 is the thinner and more modern technological process by which it was produced. Phenom II responds with a Turbo mode and a third-level cache.
As a result, the situation is ambiguous and the key factor here may be the retail price, which for a processor from the Athlon II line is 20-25% less than for the Phenom II. And taking into account the more promising platform (Socket FM1), buying the Athlon II X4 651 looks more attractive.
Of course, in order to speak more clearly about the advantages of certain processor models, you need to know what architecture they are based on, as well as their real performance in various applications, measured in practice. In the following material, we will look in detail at the modern model ranges of Intel and AMD microprocessors for desktop PCs, get acquainted with the characteristics of various CPU families, and also provide comparative results of their performance.
