Today it is already difficult to find a transformer on iron in any household appliance or power supply. In the 90s, they began to quickly recede into the past, giving way to switching converters or switching power supplies (abbreviated as SMPS).Switching power supplies are superior to transformer ones in terms of dimensions, the quality of the resulting constant voltage, they have ample opportunities for adjusting the output voltage and current, and are traditionally equipped with output overload protection. And although it is believed that switching power supplies are ...
One of the most important quantities in pulse technology is the duty cycle S. The duty cycle S characterizes a rectangular pulse, and determines how many times the pulse period T is longer than its duration t1. So, a meander, for example, has a duty cycle equal to 2, since the duration of a pulse in such a sequence is equal to half of its period. ANDin the numerator and in the denominator there are durations measured in seconds, therefore the duty cycle is a dimensionless quantity. For reference, recall that a meander is such a pulse sequence, where the duration of the positive part of the pulse ...
When it is necessary to suppress alternating currents of a certain frequency spectrum in the circuit, but at the same time effectively pass currents with frequencies above or below this spectrum, a passive LC filter on reactive elements - a low-pass filter of a low-pass filter (if it is necessary to effectively pass oscillations with a frequency below set) or high-pass filter HPF (if necessary, effectively skip oscillations with a frequency higher than the set).The principle of constructing these filters is based on the properties of inductors and capacitors ...
In one of the previous articles, we examined the general principle of operation of active power factor correctors (PFC or PFC). However, not a single corrector circuit will work without a controller, whose task is to correctly organize the control of the field-effect transistor in the general circuit.As a vivid example of a universal PFC controller for the implementation of PFC, one can cite the popular L6561 microcircuit, which is produced in SO-8 and DIP-8 packages, and is intended for building network power factor correction units with a nominal value of up to 400 W ...
Power factor and harmonic factor of the mains frequency are important indicators of power quality, especially for electronic equipment that is supplied with this power.It is desirable for the AC supplier that the power factor of the consumers is close to unity, and for electronic devices it is important that the harmonic distortion is as low as possible. In such conditions, the electronic components of the devices will live longer, and the load will work more comfortably. In reality, there is a problem, which is ...
In this article, the procedure for calculating and selecting the components necessary for the design of the power section of a step-down pulse DC converter without galvanic isolation, buck-converter topology will be given. Converters of this topology are well suited for lowering DC voltage within 50 volts at the input and at load powers of no more than 100 watts.Everything regarding the choice of the controller and driver circuit, as well as the type of field-effect transistor, will be left outside the scope of this article, but we will analyze in detail the circuit and features of the operating modes ...
A varistor is a semiconductor component that can change its active resistance nonlinearly depending on the magnitude of the voltage applied to it. In fact, it is a resistor with such a current-voltage characteristic, the linear section of which is limited to a narrow range, to which the varistor resistance comes when a voltage is applied to it above a certain threshold. At this moment, the resistance of the element changes abruptly by several orders of magnitude - it decreases from the initial tens of MΩ to units of Ohm ...
An optocoupler is an optoelectronic device, the main functional parts of which are a light source and a photodetector, not galvanically connected to each other, but located inside a common sealed housing. The principle of operation of an optocoupler is based on the fact that an electrical signal applied to it causes a glow on the transmitting side, and already in the form of light, the signal is received by the photodetector, initiating an electrical signal on the receiving side. That is, the signal is transmitted and received via optical communication ...
One of the most popular topologies of switching voltage converters is a push-pull converter or push-pull (literally - push-pull).Unlike a single-cycle flyback converter, the energy in the push-pool core is not stored, because in this case it is the transformer core, and not the choke core, it serves here as a conductor for the alternating magnetic flux created in turn by the two halves of the primary winding ... This is exactly a pulse transformer with a fixed ...
Any complex electronic device consists of simpler active and passive components. Active elements include transistors, diodes, vacuum tubes, microcircuits capable of amplifying electrical signals in terms of power; passive radio components are resistors, capacitors, transformers. Let's analyze the stages of the formation of electronics in a historical cut
The history of the development of electronics can be roughly divided into four periods. The first period dates back to the late 19th century... During this period, the basic physical laws of the operation of electronic devices were discovered or deciphered from ancient sources, and various phenomena were discovered that stimulated their development and use. The beginning of the development of lamp technology is considered to be the discovery by the Russian electrical engineer A. N. Lodygin of an ordinary incandescent lamp.
On its basis, already in 1883, the American engineer T.A. Edison discovered and described thermionic emission phenomenon and passing an electric current through a vacuum. The Russian physicist A.G. Stoletov discovered the basic laws of the photoelectric effect in 1888. The most important role in the development of electronics was played by the discovery by Russian scientists in 1895 A.S. Popov opportunities transmission of radio waves at a distance... This discovery gave a huge impetus to the development and implementation of various electronic devices in practice; this is how the demand for devices for generating, amplifying and detecting electrical signals arose.
The second stage in the history of the development of electronics covers the first half of the 20th century. This period is characterized by the development and improvement of electrovacuum devices and the systematic study of their physical properties. In 1904, the simplest two-electrode vacuum tube - diode, which has found the broadest application in radio engineering for the detection of electrical oscillations. Just a few years later, in 1907, the three-electrode lamp - triode, amplification of electrical signals. In Russia, the first samples of lamps were made in 1914-1915. under the leadership of N. D. Papaleksi and M. A. Bonch-Bruevich.
But the First World War, unleashed by the British and Germans, impeded work on the creation of new types of vacuum tubes. After the coup d'etat paid by the Anglo-Saxons in 1917, despite the most difficult financial condition, a domestic radio engineering industry began to be created. In 1918, the Nizhny Novgorod radio laboratory began to work under the direction of M. A. Bonch-Bruevich - the first research institution on radio and electric vacuum technology. Already in 1919, the most difficult year for the country, the laboratories produced the first samples of domestic receiving-amplifying radio tubes, and in 1921 the first powerful water-cooled vacuum tubes were developed. A significant contribution to the development of electric vacuum technology and the mass production of radio tubes was made by the team of the Leningrad Electric Lamp Plant built in 1922, later called "Svetlana".
Subsequently, the development of electrovacuum devices for amplifying and generating electrical oscillations proceeded in seven-mile steps. The development of hectometer (X = 1000-f-100 m) and decameter (A = 100-10 m) waves by radio technology required the development of high-frequency lamps. In 1924 were invented four-electrode lamps (tetrodes), in 1930 - five-electrode ( pentodes), in 1935 - multi-grid frequency-converting lamps ( heptodes). In the 30s and early 40s, along with the improvement of conventional lamps, lamps were developed for decimeter (A-100-n 10 cm) and centimeter (A = 10h-1 cm) waves - magnetrons, klystrons, traveling wave lamps.
In parallel with the development of electronic devices, electron-beam, photoelectric, ionic devices were created, in the creation of which Russian engineers made a significant contribution. By the mid-30s, tube electronics had largely emerged. The development of electrovacuum technology in subsequent years followed the path of reducing the dimensions of devices, improving their parameters and characteristics, increasing the operating frequency, increasing reliability and durability.
The history of the development of electronics. Third period refers to the late 40s and early 50s, characterized by the rapid development of discrete semiconductor devices. The development of semiconductor electronics was preceded by work in the field of solid state physics. Much credit for the study of the physics of semiconductors belongs to the school of Soviet physicists, for a long time headed by Academician A.F. Ioffe. Theoretical and experimental studies of the electrical properties of semiconductors carried out by Soviet scientists A.F. Ioffe, I.V. Kurchatov, V.P. Zhuze, V.G.
Start silicon age In 1947, they laid in the bowels of the laboratories of the telephone company Bell where the first transistor in the current cycle was "born" - a semiconductor amplifying element. The event marked the transition of electronics from bulky vacuum tubes to more compact and cost-effective semiconductors. A new round of civilization began, called the "Silicon Age". It is assumed that just the knowledge from semiconductors was able to decipher from the previous cycle of the development of civilization on Earth.
The first industrial designs of semiconductor devices, capable of amplifying and generating electrical oscillations, were proposed in 1948. With the advent of transistors, the period of the conquest of electronics by semiconductors begins. The ability of transistors to operate at low voltages and currents made it possible to reduce the size of all elements in the circuits, opened the possibility of miniaturization of electronic equipment. Simultaneously with the development of new types of devices, work was carried out to improve the technological methods of their manufacture.
In the first half of the 50s, a method for the diffusion of dopants into semiconductor materials was developed, and in the early 60s, planar and epitaxial technology, which for many years determined the progress in the production of semiconductor structures. The 50s were marked by discoveries in the field of solid state physics and the transition to quantum electronics, which led to the development of laser technology. A great contribution to the development of this branch of science and technology was made by Soviet scientists N. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov, who were awarded the Lenin (in 1959) and Nobel (in 1964) prizes.
The fourth period of development of electronics originates in the 60s of the last century. It is characterized by the development and practical development integrated circuits, which combined the production of active and passive elements of functional devices in a single technological cycle. The LSI integration level reaches thousands of elements in one crystal. Mastering the production of large and very large integrated circuits made it possible to move on to the creation of functionally complete digital devices - microprocessors, designed for joint operation with memory devices and providing information processing and control according to a given program.
The advances in semiconductor electronics were a factor in the emergence of microelectronics. Further, the development of electronics goes along the path of microminiaturization of electronic devices, increasing the reliability, efficiency of electronic devices and integrated microcircuits of ICs, improving their quality indicators, reducing the spread of parameters, expanding the frequency and temperature ranges. The "transistorization" of electronic equipment, which began in the 1950s, will remain a symbol of semiconductor electronics in its qualitatively new form - integral electronics for the next few years. The development of a new direction of electronics - optoelectronics, which combines electrical and optical methods of signal conversion and processing (conversion of an electrical signal into an optical, and then optical again into an electrical) - is acquiring great importance.
The history of the development of electronics. The fifth stage can be called semiconductors in processors... Or the decline of the silicon era. In the advanced areas of modern electronics, such as the development and manufacture of processors, where the size and speed of semiconductor elements began to play a decisive role, the development of technologies for using silicon has almost reached its physical limit. In recent years, improvements in the performance of integrated circuits have been achieved by increasing the operating clock frequency and increasing the number of transistors.
With an increase in the switching speed of transistors, their heat release increases exponentially. This stopped in 2005 the maximum clock frequency of processors somewhere in the region of 3 GHz, and since then only “multi-core” has been increasing, which, in fact, is essentially marking time.
Small advances are deprivations in the quantitative integration of semiconductor elements in one chip by reducing their physical size - a transition to a more subtle technological process. As of 2009-11, 32 nm technology was used in all, in which the channel length of the transistor is only 20 nm. The transition to a thinner 16 nm process only began in 2014.
The speed of transistors increases as they decrease, but the clock frequency of the processor core is no longer possible to increase, as it was up to 90 nm of the technological process. This speaks only of a deadlock in the development of silicon technologies, although they will be used for at least another century, unless, of course, the seventh cycle of civilization in this solar system is reset.
Graphene developments should be made public in the next decade, especially in this some Russian institutions have advanced thanks to the decryption of information from the previous cycle, the names of which I cannot indicate yet.
Graphene is a semiconductor material only re-discovered in 2004. Several laboratories have already synthesized a graphene-based transistor that can operate in three stable states. A similar solution in silicon would require three separate semiconductor transistors. This will allow in the near future to create integrated circuits from fewer transistors that will perform the same functions as their outdated silicon counterparts.
Another important advantage of graphene semiconductors is their ability to operate at high frequencies. Moreover, these frequencies can reach 500-1000 GHz.
ELECTRONICS BACKGROUND
The role of electronics in the creation of integrated control systems for machines and mechanisms. Socio-economic aspect of creation, development of production and effective use of electronic technology in the national economy. 6
Basic concepts of electronic technology. Current source. Voltage source. Matching the source to the load. Passive elements of the electrical circuit and their parameters. Resistors, capacitors, inductors and their connections. Transformers. Types of passive elements, their features and applications. Load factor. Alphanumeric designation system for passive elements on schematic diagrams and on products. 10
Types and parameters of electrical signals. Amplitude, effective, average value of voltage and current of electrical oscillation. Pulse duration, repetition period, frequency, duty cycle, pulse rise and fall. sixteen
Electrical circuits. Integrating differentiating. Vector diagrams of voltages and currents. Passing a rectangular signal through them (LPF and HPF). Parallel and sequential oscillatory circuits. Resonance of current and voltage. Amplitude-frequency and phase-frequency characteristics of electrical circuits and their parameters .. 18
Basic concepts of the theory of electrical conductivity of semiconductors. Electron-hole p-n-junction. Volt-ampere characteristics. Drift and diffusion current. Barrier and diffusion capacity of the p-n-junction. Possibility of their use and influence on the characteristics of diodes. Breakdown types of pn junction. eighteen
Semiconductor diodes. Operating principle. Classification, parameters. Rectifier diodes and bridges. Parallel and series connection of diodes. Zener diodes and stabilizers. Varicaps. Ghana, Schottky, tunnel, inverted, avalanche-flyby diodes. 25
Non-junction semiconductor devices. Thermistors (thermistors, posistors, thermistors with indirect heating), varistors, strain gauges, magnetoresistors, Hall sensor, main characteristics. Areas of their application. 25
Designation system for domestic and imported semiconductor devices (diodes, thyristors, transistors, electronic microcircuits) 34
Photovoltaic and visible, IR and UV emitting semiconductor devices Semiconductor lasers. Optoelectronic pairs. Their application. Dynamic display systems. 38
Thyristors. Design and principle of operation. Mode of operation, classification, designation, parameters. Diode, triode, tetrode, latching and non-latching transistors. I - V characteristic of a thyristor, the process of transition from a closed state to an open state and vice versa. Types, symbols of thyristors. Thyristor operation in DC circuits. Phase control of thyristors. Thyristor voltage regulators and stabilizers. 45
Bipolar transistors (BPT). Electrical and operational parameters. Input, output and flow characteristics. Transistor equivalent circuits and their differential parameters. Statistical characteristics (h-parameters) of BPT. Circuits for switching on the BPT (with a common emitter, a common collector, a common base). Their comparative analysis and areas of application. Ebers-Moll equation, collector current temperature coefficient, emitter internal resistance, maximum voltage gain, Earley effect, Miller effect. 50
Unipolar (field) transistors (PT). The principle of operation of a PT with a p-n-junction. Stock (output) and drain-gate (through) characteristics of the PT, the main parameters. PT metal - dielectric - semiconductor (MIS) and metal - oxide - semiconductor (MOS) with built-in and induced channels, design, characteristics and parameters. The polarity of the supplied voltages and the features of the use of PT. Schemes for switching on a PT with a common source (OI), a common drain (OS), a common gate (OZ). Comparative analysis of BPT and PT. IGBT transistors .. 56
Basic parameters and characteristics of electronic amplifiers. General information. Basic properties, classification and structure of the amplifier. Amplitude-frequency, amplitude and phase characteristics. Their main parameters. Amplifier noise (thermal, shot, flicker noise). Current and voltage noises. Criteria for the use of DC and DCT based on the requirements of minimizing noise at various resistances of the signal source. Common and antiphase interference. Methods for their reduction and shielding. 58
Amplifier stages for PT and BPT. Statistical operating mode of the amplifying stage, selection of the operating point, circuit for setting the bias voltage of the BPT. Calculation for direct and alternating current of stages with OE and OK. Comparative analysis of OE, OK, OB cascades. A cascade with an OE as a voltage-current converter, a phase-inverted cascade. Amplifier stages on a PT, bias voltage setting circuits, features of their operation and switching on. Dynamic load, current source, current mirrors and current reflectors on DC and DCT. Weakening the influence of temperature and the Earley effect. Wilson current mirror, current source output impedance. Areas of use. 63
Feedback (OS) in amplifiers. Positive (PIC) and negative (OOS) feedbacks. OS ratio and OS depth. Influence of OS on the parameters and characteristics of amplifiers. Serial and parallel OOS for voltage and current, tracking PIC. Examples of schematic diagrams with OS .. 66
Integrated microcircuits. Integral principle of manufacturing and application of electronic components. Semiconductor integrated circuits, their classification, purpose, applications. Analog, digital and analog-digital microcircuits .. 74
Sources of secondary power supply for electronic devices. Classification and parameters of rectifiers. Full-wave and full-wave bridge and midpoint, single-phase and three-phase, controlled and uncontrolled rectifiers. Larionov's scheme. Voltage multipliers. Latour's scheme. Smoothing filters .. 77
Voltage and current stabilizers. Block diagram of a stabilized power supply. Parametric and compensation, parallel and series, adjustable and non-adjustable, unipolar and bipolar voltage and current stabilizers. Op-amp stabilizers. Current and voltage protection. Key boost, buck, and inverting (buck-boost) stabilizers. Functional diagrams of key stabilizers and switching power supplies of small-sized devices. Schematic diagram of stabilizers. 83
Amplifiers of direct current (DCA). DCT with direct coupling between stages and modulation-demodulation (MDM) type. Modulation methods. Differential amplifying cascades (DU) on BPT and PT. Displacement and drift compensation methods. Comparative analysis and fields of application. Remote control operation in the mode of in-phase and antiphase signal and when using a dynamic load. 88
Integrated operational amplifiers (OA) and their applications. Variety and designation of OU. Types of input stages. Simplified op-amp diagram. Appointment of cascades. Common Mode Rejection Ratio and Signal Voltage Effect. Amplitude-frequency and phase-frequency characteristics, the main parameters of the op-amp. Methods for reducing shear and drift stresses. The cutoff frequency of the gain and the maximum slew rate of the output signal. 101
Examples of constructing analog circuits on op amps (inverting and non-inverting amplifiers, repeaters, adders, subtractors, integrators, differentiators, high and low pass filters, band and notch filters, gyrators, current-voltage converters, precision rectifiers, zero-organs, electronic relays, rectifiers, etc.). OU application in robotics and control systems. 105
Shapers and generators of pulse signals on the op-amp. Comparators, Schmitt triggers. Linear voltage generators on the op-amp .. 108
Power amplifiers. Operating modes of amplifying stages (active, inverse, cutoff, saturation) and their application. Single-ended power amplifiers. Push-pull transformer and transformerless power amplifiers. The output stages are complementary and based on transistors of the same conductivity. Phase inverters. Capacitive and galvanic connection to the load. Harmonic distortion in power amplifiers and methods for their reduction. Operating modes of class A, B, AB, C, D, comparative analysis and their areas of application. Methods for setting the bias voltage and temperature stabilization. Turning on transistors according to Darlington and Shiklai circuits. Thermal resistance. Providing thermal conditions of the output stages at the DC and DCBT. 112
Harmonic oscillators. Self-excitation conditions of generators (phase balance and amplitude balance). Autogenerators. Stabilization of frequency and amplitude in oscillators. Multivibrators. Methods and means of construction. Symmetrical and asymmetrical op-amp multivibrators. Principle of operation and timing diagrams of work. 114
Active and passive filters. High-pass filters (HPF) and low-pass filters (LPF). Bandpass and notch (obstruction), LC and RC filters. Bandwidth, stopband, quality factor, attenuation, slope in the transition section. Filters Butterworth, Bessel, Chebyshev, etc. Advantages and disadvantages. Salen and Kay filter. Parallel feedback filter, universal and biquad filter, gyrator. 117
Modulation. Modulation types: amplitude, frequency, phase. Advantages, disadvantages. Pulse types of modulation: pulse-amplitude (AIM), pulse-code (CMM), pulse-width (PWM), phase-pulse (PPM). Areas of use. Block diagram of a switching power supply. 117
Key voltage converters. Rectangular and resonant. One-stroke and two-stroke. With forward and reverse connection of the diode. Bridge, half-bridge, with a midpoint. Independent and self-excited. Transistor and thyristor. Features of use and scope. 117
Logical foundations of digital devices and computers. Binary variables and switching functions, basic logical functions, basic laws of logic algebra, forms of representation and minimization of switching functions. 117
Elementary base of digital microcircuits. Logic elements AND, OR, NOT on diodes, bipolar and field-effect transistors. Basic logic elements of diode-transistor, transistor-transistor, emitter-coupled logic. Logic elements based on the same type and complementary MOS transistors. Logic gates with three output states. Open collector microcircuits. Combined use of microcircuits of different series. 117
Integral triggers. Asynchronous and synchronous triggers. RS-, JK-, D- and T-triggers. The principle of operation, structural and schematic diagrams, timing diagrams of the operation of trigger circuits, their main parameters. The use of trigger circuits to create digital control systems. 117
Impulse counters. Binary counters and counters with an arbitrary counting factor. The principle of operation, structural and schematic diagrams, timing diagrams of the operation of counters, their main parameters. Varieties of meters, especially the use of meters when creating digital control systems. 117
Registers. Parallel, serial and parallel-serial registers. Structural diagrams, features of work and basic parameters of registers of various types. Application of registers in digital control systems. 117
Binary adders. One-bit binary adders. Parallel multi-digit adders. Structural diagrams, features of work. Main settings. 117
The role of electronics in the creation of integrated control systems for machines and mechanisms. Socio-economic aspect of creation, development of production and effective use of electronic technology in the national economy
Electronics is a field of science and technology, engaged in the development and design of devices that use the motion of charged particles in vacuum, gases and solids (mainly in semiconductors), and the creation of devices based on them. This is a science that has been developing rapidly since the beginning of the twentieth century and has a huge impact on the development of civilization.
The beginning of the development of electronics (vacuum tubes: diode in 1903, triode in 1905) is closely related to the need for the development of communications and, above all, radio communications. It can be noted that until 1939 the development of electronic tubes and circuits was associated with their use mainly for the needs of radio broadcasting, which was at that time the most important consumer of electronics. During this period, most of the electronic tubes currently known, and the basic electronic circuits, are still used in various modifications.
Industrial electronics, dealing with the use of electronic components and circuits in industry, is much younger as a field of technology. The first attempts to use lamp circuits in industry, primarily in measuring installations, date back to the thirties of the last century. However, they did not give good results due to the fragility, large mass and dimensions of the electronic tubes, although other characteristics of these devices were satisfactory. The results of these early experiments were only used on a large scale during the Second World War, when increased production needs had to be met in the face of a sensitive labor shortage. The automation of production, the introduction of which began at that time, could not be carried out without electronic devices. Electronic circuits have also proven to be indispensable in some measuring and control installations.
The development of industrial electronics accelerated significantly in the post-war period, especially after the widespread use of semiconductor devices in the fifties (1947 - the appearance of the first transistor). With the advent of semiconductor devices, a significant miniaturization of devices and a decrease in their power consumption, an increase in uptime, etc. became possible. requirements.
In recent years, the following main areas of application of electronic circuits in industry have been identified:
· Devices for measuring various physical quantities, both electrical and non-electrical;
· Devices for the study of materials, such as metals, by electrical and magnetic methods without their destruction;
· Devices for regulation and automatic control of various processes or industrial installations, as well as for the management of various objects of the economy;
· Industrial television installations used to control and monitor various objects or processes;
· Auxiliary devices used in some technological processes, for example, thermal processes (heating by high-frequency currents) or caused by ultrasonic irradiation (coagulation, processing, surface cleaning, etc.).
When measuring electrical quantities, electronic circuits are required in cases where electrical effects are so insignificant that it is impossible to investigate them using classical methods. This happens, for example, when measuring low currents and voltages, small changes in capacitance, etc., if the sensitivity of conventional voltmeters, ammeters or bridges is insufficient for measurements. In this case, it is necessary to amplify the measured value to the value recorded by conventional methods. Similar problems often arise when measuring non-electrical quantities with electrical methods, when the signals that occur in the primary measuring transducer are negligible. In this case, the amplification is done using electronic circuits.
Electronic devices are also of great importance for studying the properties of materials by different methods. Many of these methods are based on the relationship between the mechanical and electrical or magnetic properties of the materials under study. The study of a material can be reduced to measuring its characteristics by a magnetic or electric method, which is very convenient, since such a measurement is easy to carry out, it can be automated, etc. In this case, the study does not lead to destruction or damage to the product. This is very important, since studies leading to the destruction of the test sample, for example rupture, can only be carried out on a few copies of the manufactured batch of products. Therefore, in this case, the measurement results are random and do not give complete confidence in the quality of products that have not been tested. Non-destructive test methods are more reliable because they can be applied to the entire manufactured batch, that is, to check each manufactured item.
Automatic control and monitoring of technological processes are now one of the most characteristic features of the rapid development of technology. In this new rapidly developing field of technology, electronic devices are a very important and often indispensable element, on the properties of which the high-quality operation of the entire regulated system depends. The latest advances in automation associated with the use of electronic computers would not have been possible without electronic circuits at the current level of technology development. The close connection between automation and electronics determines the proper progress of both of these areas of technology.
Electronics is also closely related to certain industrial processes, in which electronic devices are commonly used as sources of high frequency currents. These are high-frequency heating processes, as well as processes associated with high-power ultrasound radiation. The electronic circuit in such a device serves to create high-frequency currents of the required power, and therefore, it is only indirectly related to this technological process, nevertheless, it is mandatory.
Television devices can transmit the image of any industrial facility over an arbitrary distance, for example, to a dispatcher or to service personnel. Industrial television plays an important role where, due to working conditions, direct observation is impossible, for example, in a poisoned atmosphere, in areas with a high level of radiation (nuclear reactors), etc.
Robotics as a new scientific and technical direction arose as a result of tremendous progress in the development of computer technology and mechanics. Robots represent a new class of machines that simultaneously perform the functions of workers and information machines.
The emergence of robotics is driven by the needs of a developing society. The ever-increasing needs of the population can be satisfied only on the basis of a further increase in labor productivity. The most important reserve for this growth in the face of a shortage of labor resources is comprehensive mechanization and automation of production. The great successes in the automation of mechanical engineering in mass and large-scale production based on the use of non-reprogrammable automatic devices made it possible to obtain high labor productivity at a minimum production cost. However, 70% of modern mechanical engineering products are produced in small and medium series. In these conditions, traditional means of automation cannot be applied and the required flexibility of production is achieved through the use of manual labor.
The differentiation of the production process into a series of repetitive simple operations led to monotonous, tedious labor actions performed by people on the assembly line. Labor devoid of creative content, monotonous, life-threatening, should be the lot of robots.
What is a robot, what is the scientific and technical content of this term? There are many definitions of the concept of "robot". Their analysis shows that the essential properties of a robot include its anthropomorphism (assimilation to a human) when interacting with the environment: universality, the presence of elements of intelligence, the ability to learn, the presence of memory, the ability to independently navigate in the environment, etc. Based on these properties, the following definition is formulated. A robot is an automatic machine designed to reproduce the motor and mental functions of a person, as well as endowed with the ability to adapt and learn in the process of interacting with the external environment. This is a new type of automatic machine. Conventional automata are designed to perform the same operation multiple times. Typical examples are automatic machines, coin changers, ticket vending machines, newspapers, etc. In contrast, robots are universal multi-purpose systems; they are able not only to perform many different operations, but also to quickly retrain from one operation to another.
Robots are most widely used in industry and, above all, in mechanical engineering. These robots are called industrial robots.
The following advantages should be noted.
Improving occupational safety is one of the top priorities for robots. It is known that the majority of industrial accidents are caused by injuries to the hands, especially during loading and unloading operations. The use of robots makes it possible to improve working conditions potentially hazardous to human health: in foundries, in the presence of radioactive materials, harmful chemicals, in the processing of cotton, asbestos, etc.
When using robots, an intensification of the work process occurs, an increase in labor productivity, its stabilization during the shift, an increase in the shift ratio of the main technological equipment, which improves the technical and economic indicators of production. The quality of the products is improved. So, for example, the quality of the welded seam improves due to strict adherence to the technological regime. Reduced losses from rejects associated with operator errors. Material savings are also possible. For example, when workers paint a car, only 30% of the paint goes directly to the car, the rest is carried away by the ventilation of the workplace. With the use of robots, fundamentally new industries and technological processes are created that maximally reduce the adverse effects on humans.
However, the effectiveness of the use of the robot is manifested only with the correct organization of its interaction with the serviced equipment and the external environment. The task of robotics is not only to create robots, but also to organize fully automated production facilities.
The introduction of robots into production is fraught with certain difficulties.
Robots are still very expensive and not always efficient enough. An industrial robot is not always able to completely replace a worker who maintains technological equipment or performs a technological operation, but can only free him from monotonous physical labor, changing its nature and content, bringing him closer to the work of an adjuster.
The main factors of the economic efficiency of robots taken into account in its calculation are both industrial and social. This feature distinguishes robots from other variants of new technology, in connection with which a special intersectoral method for assessing the economic efficiency of their creation and use has been developed.
Basic concepts of electronic technology.
Voltage source
A source of electrical energy, which has a constant voltage at its external terminals, independent of the current consumed from this source.
r- generator internal resistance
R- load resistance
E- EMF generator
U = E - I r
This is achieved when the internal resistance of the source is close to 0 or incommensurably small compared to the load resistance (ideal conditions r = 0). R >> r
Usually, for power supplies of electronic devices, to set constant operating modes, they take R = 10r.
Power source
A source of electrical energy that delivers a constant current to the external circuit, regardless of the load resistance. This is possible when the external load resistance is negligible compared to the internal resistance of the source.
Used as collector load: ( kU = Rк / (Re + re0); Rк = ΔU / ΔI; and in the emitter circuit of the differential stages. Also used in electrochemistry.
Matching the source to the load:
maximum power is allocated to the load if its resistance is equal to that of the source.
R = r => Pн = Pmax
They are used in transmitters to obtain maximum power and in high-frequency circuits to obtain minimal wave reflection from the load.
Passive elements
(resistors, capacitors, inductors) are represented on the diagrams in the form of a resistive resistance R, containers C, inductance L.
Electronics(electronic technologies) - the science of the interaction of electrons with electromagnetic fields, based on electronic theory¹, and on the methods of creating electronic devices and devices in which this interaction is used to convert electromagnetic energy, mainly for the transmission, processing and storage of information. On the basis of electronics, the electronics industry develops and manufactures electronic devices, computers and a wide range of other products used in all fields of science, technology and modern human activity.
The history of the emergence and development of electronics
Background - invention of the telephone, phonograph, cinema
Attempts to create a telephone date back to the second half of the last century. With the development of the theory of electricity, in particular the theory of electromagnetism, the scientific basis for its invention was created. Back in 1837, the American C. Peidus established that a magnetic strip can make a sound if it is subjected to rapid magnetization reversal. In 1849-1854. vice-inspector of the Paris Telegraph Charles Bourseul theoretically formulated the principle of the telephone set. The first example of a telephone was a device designed by the German physicist Philip Reis in 1861 (Fig. 1).
Rice. 1. Flight telephone (1861).
Reis's telephone consisted of two parts: a transmitting and receiving apparatus, the action of which was interconnected. In the transmitting apparatus, during transmission, there was a periodic opening and closing of the current circuit, which in the receiving apparatus corresponded to the trembling of a metal rod that reproduced sound. With the help of the Reis apparatus, it was possible to transmit music well, but the transmission of speech was difficult.
In 1876, the American technician A. Bell (1847-1922), originally from Scotland, created the first satisfactory telephone design. In the same year, he received a patent for his invention (Fig. 2).
Rice. 2. Telephone A. Bell (1876).
Bell's handsets, however, could only transmit speech well over a relatively short distance and, in addition, had a number of other disadvantages that made them impossible to use in practice. By this time, the idea of creating a telephone had spread very widely. In the USA, for example, over 30 patents for telephone sets were taken in the 70s. The same was the case in Europe.
Many inventors have worked on improving the telephone. The most significant improvements to the telephone in 1878 were independently made by the Englishman D. Hughes (1831-1900) and the American T. Edison. They invented the most important part of the telephone - the microphone. The Hughes - Edison microphone was only a transmitter that perceived sound vibrations and amplified the inductive current in the coil of Bell's telephone. With the invention of the microphone, it became possible to talk over long distances, and the sound in the phone was clearer. Then Edison suggested using an induction coil in the phone. With the introduction of it into the telephone, its design was basically finished. Further work of a number of inventors in various countries was limited to improving existing designs.
The telephone, unlike other latest technical inventions, very quickly became common in almost all countries. The first urban telephone exchange was put into operation in the United States in 1878 in Nõo Havana. In 1879, telephone networks were already in 20 cities in the United States. The first telephone exchange in Paris was opened in 1879, in Berlin in 1881.
The pioneer of telephony in Russia was the engineer P. M. Golubitsky (1845-1911), who made many significant improvements in the design of the telephone. In 1878 Golubitsky built the first series of multi-pole telephones. He also proved that telephones can operate at a distance of up to 350 km.
In 1881, a Russian joint-stock company was established in Russia "for the device and operation of telephone communications in various cities of the Russian Empire." The first telephone lines in Russia were built in 1881 simultaneously in five cities - Petersburg, Moscow, Warsaw, Riga and Odessa. The most interesting invention of this period was the phonograph, an apparatus for recording and reproducing sound. This device, invented in 1877 by Edison, had the ability to store, and then at any time reproduce and repeat the sound vibrations recorded on it, caused earlier by the human voice, musical instruments, etc. (Fig. 3).
Rice. 3. Phonograph T.A. Edison, (1877)
The device and principle of operation of the phonograph are as follows. Sound vibrations in a phonograph were transmitted by a very thin glass or mica plate, and with the help of a writing needle attached to it (a cutter with a sapphire tip), they were transferred to the surface of a rotating roller wrapped in tin foil or covered with a special wax layer. The writing needle was connected to a membrane that received or emitted sound vibrations. The axis of the phonograph roller had a thread, and therefore, with each revolution, the roller was displaced along the axis of rotation by the same amount. As a result, the writing needle pressed out the helical groove on the wax layer. When moving along this groove, the needle and the membrane associated with it made mechanical vibrations, reproducing the recorded sounds. On the basis of the phonograph, the gramophone and other devices used in mechanical sound recording then arose.
In the 90s of the XIX century. cinematography appears, combining a number of inventions and discoveries that made it possible to carry out the basic processes necessary for the reproduction of the photographed movement. The closest predecessors of cinematography, which made it possible to carry out the process of cinematography, were the "apparatus for analyzing stroboscopic phenomena" by the Russian inventor Timchenko (1893), who combined projection onto a screen with intermittent change of images, a chronophotographer of the French physiologist J. Demeny, who combined chronophotography on film and projection onto a screen (1894), as well as the "freak show" created by the American inventor W. Latham in 1895, which combined chronophotography with projection onto a screen, and other inventions.
The apparatus, which combined all the basic elements of cinematography, was first invented in France by Louis J. Lumière (1864-1948). In 1895, together with his brother Auguste, he developed the design of a motion picture camera. Lumiere called his invention cinematography. An experimental demonstration of a film shot on film using this apparatus took place in March 1895, and in December of the same year the first cinema began functioning in Paris. In the 90s, cinema appeared in other countries, and almost every European country had its own inventor of this apparatus. In Germany, the pioneers of cinematography were M. Skladanovsky (1895) and O. Mester (1896); in England - R. Pole (1896); in Russia - A. Samarsky (1896) and I. Akimov (1896); in the USA - F. Jenkinson (1897) and T. Armat (1897).
One of the greatest discoveries in the field of technology was the invention of the radio. The honor of his invention belongs to the great Russian scientist A. S. Popov (1859-1906). Back in 1886, the German scientist G. Hertz (1857-1894) was the first to experimentally prove the fact of radiation of electromagnetic waves. He found that electromagnetic waves obey the same basic laws as light waves. In the late 90s, N. Tesla in Europe and America read a number of reports, accompanied by demonstration of experiments. He excited long waves with high frequency generators, lit lamps and sent signals over a distance. Tesla confidently predicted the possibility of using these waves for telephony and even for the transmission of electrical energy. Back in 1889, Popov, while working in the field of the study of electromagnetic oscillations, was the first to express the idea of the possibility of using electromagnetic waves to transmit signals over a distance.
On May 7, 1895, AS Popov at a meeting of the Russian Physics and Mathematics Society in St. Petersburg for the first time demonstrated a radio receiver. In his work on increasing the sensitivity of instruments for detecting electromagnetic oscillations, Popov followed his own original path. He was the first to use an antenna and, seeing the imperfection of vibrators as sources of electromagnetic waves, he adapted the receiver to register lightning discharges of atmospheric electricity. The radio receiver, invented by Popov, was named by him a lightning detector (Fig. 4).
Rice. 4. Radio receiver A.S. Popov (1895).
The lightning detector device was reduced to the following: a tube with metal filings and a relay was included in the battery circuit. Under normal conditions, the current in the relay coil was weak, and the relay armature was not attracted. But during a thunderstorm, lightning discharges caused the appearance of electromagnetic waves. This led to the fact that the resistance of the sawdust in the tube dropped and the relay worked, connecting an electric bell, which gave a signal about the arrival of electromagnetic waves. Popov's lightning detector made it possible to receive radio waves at a distance of several kilometers. A.S. Popov's report in May 1895 was published in full in the January issue of the "Journal of the Russian Physicochemical Society" under the title "Instrument for the Detection and Recording of Electrical Oscillations". Then this report was published in 1896 in the journal "Electricity" and in the journal "Meteorological Bulletin". As a result of numerous experiments, on March 24, 1896, Popov carried out the world's first radiotelegraph transmission. His report to the Physicochemical Society was accompanied by the work of a lightning detector, which received telegraph signals at a distance of 250 m. Transmitting and receiving antennas were used in the transmission. In 1897 Popov established communication between the ships "Africa" and "Europe" at a distance of 5 km. And in the fall of 1899, while rescuing the battleship General-Admiral Apraksin, which had run over the stones, A.S. Popov established a permanent radiotelegraph communication at a distance of more than 46 km. AS Popov did not publish a detailed report on his experiments. The Russian military department offered to classify these works. A year after Popov's first report and two months after his second report, in 1897, the Italian G. Marconi took a patent in England for a device for wireless telegraphy. From the description it is clear that the Marconi radio was very closely reproduced by the lightning detector A.S. Popov. In 1897, a special joint stock company was formed in England to exploit Marconi's invention. The fate of Popov and Marconi was different. While Marconi, having received financial support, was able to deploy on a large scale work to improve the radio equipment, A.S. Popov had to work in very difficult conditions. Little funds were allocated to improve his ingenious invention, and the results of his work were hardly covered in print. Radio engineering, the foundations of which were laid by the works of A.S. Popov, began to develop especially rapidly after the First World War, during which radio communication became the most important form of communication in the army and navy. Radio was then widely used for civilian purposes. These branches of technology in the period under review were not of great importance, but, despite their insignificant role, they were the pinnacle of technical progress of the late 19th - early 20th centuries. and became the starting points of technological progress in the modern era.
Electronics originated at the beginning of the 20th century. after the creation of the foundations of electrodynamics (1856-73), the study of the properties of thermionic emission (1882-1901), photoelectron emission (1887-1905), X-rays (1895-97), the discovery of the electron (J.J. Thomson, 1897), the creation of electronic theory (1892-1909). The development of electronics began with the invention of the lamp diode (J. A. Fleming, 1904), the three-electrode lamp, the triode (L. de Forest, 1906); the use of a triode to generate electrical oscillations (German engineer A. Meissner, 1913); development of powerful water-cooled generator lamps (MA Bonch-Bruevich, 1919–25) for radio transmitters used in long-distance radio communication and broadcasting systems.
Vacuum photocells (the experimental model was created by A.G. Stoletov, 1888; industrial designs - by the German scientists J. Elster and G. Heitel, 1910); photomultiplier tubes - single-stage (P.V. Timofeev, 1928) and multi-stage (L.A. Kubetsky, 1930) - made it possible to create sound films, served as the basis for the development of transmitting television tubes: a vidicon (the idea was proposed in 1925 by A.A. Chernyshev) , an iconoscope (S.I.Kataev and independently V.K.Zvorykin, 1931-32), a supericonoscope (P.V. Timofeev, P.V. Shmakov, 1933), a superorticon (a double-sided target for such a tube was the scientist G.V. Braude in 1939; the first superorticon was described by the American scientists A. Rose, P. Weimer, and H. Lowe in 1946), and others.
Creation of a multi-resonator magnetron (N.F. Alekseev and D.E. Malyarov, under the leadership of M.A. Kovalenko, 1940) served as the basis for the development of radar in the centimeter wavelength range; flyby klystrons (the idea was proposed in 1932 by D.A. Rozhansky, developed in 1935 by the Soviet physicist A.N. Arsenyeva and the German physicist O. Heil, implemented in 1938 by the American physicists R. and Z. Varian and others) and traveling-wave lamps ( American scientist R. Kompfner, 1943) ensured the further development of radio relay communication systems, particle accelerators and contributed to the creation of space communication systems. Simultaneously with the development of vacuum electronic devices, gas-discharge devices (ionic devices) were created and improved, for example, mercury valves, which are used mainly for converting alternating current into direct current in powerful industrial installations; thyratrons for the formation of powerful pulses of electric current in devices of pulse technology; gas-discharge light sources.
The use of crystalline semiconductors as detectors for radio receivers (1900-05), the creation of cuprox and selenium rectifiers and photocells (1920-1926), the invention of kristadin (OV Losev, 1922), the invention of the transistor (W. Shockley, W. Brattain, J. Bardeen, 1948) defined the formation and development of semiconductor electronics. The development of planar technology of semiconductor structures (late 50s - early 60s) and methods for integrating many elementary devices (transistors, diodes, capacitors, resistors) on one single crystal semiconductor wafer led to the creation of a new direction in electronics - microelectronics(integral electronics). The main developments in the field of integrated electronics are aimed at creating integrated circuits - microminiature electronic devices (amplifiers, converters, computer processors, electronic storage devices, etc.), consisting of hundreds and thousands of electronic devices placed on one semiconductor crystal with an area of several mm 2. Microelectronics has opened up new opportunities for solving problems such as automation of technological process control, information processing, improvement of computer technology, etc., put forward by the development of modern social production. The creation of quantum generators (N.G.Basov, A.M. Prokhorov and independently of them C. ultra-precise quantum frequency standards.
Soviet scientists have made a major contribution to the development of electronics. Fundamental research in the field of physics and technology of electronic devices was carried out by M. A. Bonch-Bruevich, L. I. Mandel'shtam, N. D. Papaleksi, S. A. Vekshinsky, A. A. Chernyshev, M. M. Bogoslovsky and many others .; on the problems of excitation and transformation of electrical oscillations, radiation, propagation and reception of radio waves, their interaction with current carriers in vacuum, gases and solids - B.A. Vvedensky, V.D. Kalmykov, A.L. Mints, A.A. Raspletin, M.V. Shuleikin and others; in the field of physics of semiconductors -; luminescence and other branches of physical optics - SI Vavilov; quantum theory of light scattering radiation, photoelectric effect in metals - I.E. Tamm and many others.
Electronic Science and Technology
Electronics relies on many branches of physics - electrodynamics, classical and quantum mechanics, solid state physics, optics, thermodynamics, as well as chemistry, crystallography and other sciences. Using the results of these and a number of other fields of knowledge, electronics, on the one hand, sets new tasks for other sciences, which stimulates their further development, on the other hand, it creates new electronic devices and devices and thereby equips science with qualitatively new means and research methods.
Electronics is the science of methods for creating electronic devices and devices in which this interaction is used to convert electromagnetic energy. The most characteristic types of transformations of electromagnetic energy are the generation, amplification and reception of electromagnetic waves with a frequency of up to 10 12 Hz, as well as infrared, visible, ultraviolet and X-rays (10 12 - 10 20 Hz). Conversion to such high frequencies is possible due to the extremely low inertia of the electron - the smallest of the currently known charged particles. In electronics, interactions of electrons with both macrofields in the working space of an electronic device and with microfields inside an atom, molecule or crystal lattice are studied.
Applied tasks of electronics: development of electronic devices and devices that perform various functions in systems for converting and transmitting information, in control systems, in computer technology, as well as in energy devices; development of scientific foundations of technology for the production of electronic devices and technology using electronic and ionic processes and devices for various fields of science and technology.
Electronics has played a leading role in the scientific and technological revolution. The introduction of electronic devices in various spheres of human activity to a large extent (often decisive) contributed to the successful development of the most complex scientific and technical problems, an increase in the productivity of physical and mental labor, and an improvement in the economic indicators of production. On the basis of the achievements of electronics, it is developing, producing electronic equipment for various types of communication, automation, television, radar, computer technology, process control systems, instrument making, as well as lighting equipment, infrared technology, X-ray technology and many others.
Electronics includes 3 areas of research:
Each area is subdivided into a number of sections and a number of areas. The section unites complexes of homogeneous physical and chemical phenomena and processes, which are of fundamental importance for the development of many classes of electronic devices in this area. The direction covers the methods of designing and calculating electronic devices, related in the principles of operation or in the functions they perform, as well as the methods of manufacturing these devices. Electronics is in the stage of intensive development, it is characterized by the emergence of new areas and the creation of new directions in existing areas.
Electronic device technology ... The design and manufacture of electronic devices is based on the use of a combination of various properties of materials and physical and chemical processes. Therefore, it is necessary to deeply understand the processes used and their influence on the properties of devices, to be able to accurately control these processes. The exceptional importance of physical and chemical research and the development of scientific foundations of technology in electronics are due, firstly, to the dependence of the properties of electronic devices on the presence of impurities in materials and substances sorbed on the surfaces of the working elements of devices, as well as on the composition of the gas and the degree of vacuum of the environment surrounding these devices. elements; secondly, - the dependence of the reliability and durability of electronic devices on the degree of stability of the raw materials used and the controllability of the technology. Advances in technology often give impetus to the development of new directions in electronics. The technology features common to all areas of electronics are extremely high (in comparison with other branches of technology) requirements for the properties of the raw materials used in the electronics industry; the degree of protection of products from contamination during the production process; geometric accuracy of manufacturing electronic devices. The fulfillment of the first of these requirements is associated with the creation of many materials with ultra-high purity and structural perfection, with predetermined physicochemical properties - special alloys of single crystals, ceramics, glasses, etc. The creation of such materials and the study of their properties are the subject of a special scientific and technical discipline - electronic materials science. One of the most pressing technology problems associated with the fulfillment of the second requirement is the struggle to reduce the dustiness of the gas environment in which the most important technological processes take place. In some cases, the permissible dust content is no more than three grains of dust less than 1 micron in 1 m 3. The severity of the requirements for the geometric accuracy of the manufacture of electronic devices is evidenced, for example, by the following figures: in some cases, the relative dimensional error should not exceed 0.001%; absolute accuracy of dimensions and mutual arrangement of elements of integrated circuits reaches hundredths of a micron. This requires the creation of new, more advanced methods of material processing, new means and methods of control. A characteristic feature of technology in electronics is the need for widespread use of the latest methods and means: electron beam, ultrasonic and laser processing and welding, photolithography, electron and X-ray lithography, electrospark processing, ion implantation, plasma chemistry, molecular epitaxy, electron microscopy, vacuum installations that ensure the pressure of residual gases up to 10-13 mm Hg. Art. The complexity of many technological processes requires the elimination of the subjective influence of a person on the process, which makes the problem of automating the production of electronic devices using computers urgent. These and other specific features of technology in electronics have led to the need to create a new direction in mechanical engineering - electronic engineering.
Prospects for the development of electronics... One of the main problems facing electronics was associated with the requirement to increase the amount of information processed by computing and control electronic systems while reducing their size and energy consumption. This problem was solved by creating semiconductor integrated circuits providing switching times up to 10 -11 sec; an increase in the degree of integration on a single crystal of more than a million transistors less than 1 micron in size; use in integrated circuits of optical communication devices and optoelectronic converters, superconductors; development of storage devices with a capacity of several gigabits on one chip; the use of laser and electron beam switching; expanding the functionality of integrated circuits; transition from two-dimensional (planar) technology of integrated circuits to three-dimensional (volumetric) and the use of a combination of various properties of a solid in one device; development and implementation of the principles and means of stereoscopic television, which is more informative than conventional television; creation of electronic devices operating in the range of millimeter and submillimeter waves for broadband (more efficient) information transmission systems, as well as devices for optical communication lines; development of high-power, high-efficiency microwave devices and lasers for energetic action on matter and directional energy transfer (for example, from space). One of the trends in the development of electronics is the penetration of its methods and means into biology (for studying the cells and structure of a living organism and influencing it) and medicine (for diagnostics, therapy, surgery). With the development of electronics and the improvement of technology for the production of electronic devices, the areas of using the achievements of electronics in all spheres of life and human activity are expanding, the role of electronics in accelerating scientific and technological progress is increasing.
Recommended reading
Alferov A.V., Reznik I.S., Shorin V.G., Orgatekhnika, M., 1973.
Vlasov V.F., Electronic and ionic devices, 3rd ed., M., 1960;
Kushmanov I.V., Vasiliev N.N., Leontyev A.G., Electronic devices, M., 1973.
When we talk about electronic technology, the imagination comes up with the idea of beautiful, convenient installations and devices with which we deal in everyday life. Indeed, it is difficult to imagine a time when there was no various audio and video equipment, computers, electronic clocks, electric musical instruments, etc. A huge amount of electronic equipment is used in various industries, radio engineering, agriculture, aviation, astronautics, medicine, navigation and in military development.
Currently, electronic technology is also understood as devices and devices based on electron flows and their interaction with matter and electromagnetic fields.
Electronic devices are based on electronic devices.
Electronic devices are elementary electronic devices that perform specific functions. Distinguish between vacuum and solid state electronic devices.
Vacuum electronic devices include vacuum tubes, cathode-ray tubes and other vacuum and gas-discharge devices (magnetrons, photomultiplier tubes, electron-optical converters, etc.).
Solid-state devices and devices include semiconductor diodes, transistors, thyristors, LEDs, photodiodes, semiconductor lasers, integrated circuits, devices for generating electrical current and voltage pulses, etc.
Electronic technology is also understood as a variety of electronic devices associated with the use of elementary electronic devices, ranging from simple amplifiers to complex computers. A special place is occupied by electronic devices associated with the formation, recognition and conversion of radio signals. They are studied and described by radio electronics.
The area of electronics is characteristic, which includes impulse devices and electronic devices associated with digital and computing technology.
The sections of electronics devoted to methods of studying physical phenomena, measuring physical quantities, characteristics and parameters of electronic devices, as well as related electrical circuits and electromagnetic fields, are also specific. Devices that measure parameters and study the processes occurring in electrical circuits and devices are called electronic measuring devices.
All this gives reason to draw a conclusion. what: "Electronic engineering (electronics) is a field of science and technology associated with the study and implementation of physical properties, research methods and the practice of using devices based on the interaction of electrons with electric and magnetic fields in a vacuum or solid."
Elements of electronic equipment are industrial electronic devices and devices that perform specific functions. Elements of electronic technology are, as it were, building blocks from which more complex electronic devices are constructed. The basic, or basic elements of electronic equipment are resistors, capacitors, diodes, transistors, microcircuits, etc.
Active elements of electronic equipment (LEDs, lasers, optocouplers, control microcircuits) are also called electronic elements, emphasizing their ability to perform certain functions.
The elemental base of electronic equipment is the main set of electronic elements used in the industrial production of complex electronic equipment at this historical stage.
Analog electronics is an electronic technique that operates with continuous signals (continuously varying voltages and currents). Analog electronics devices include amplifiers, mixers, frequency converters, filters, voltage, current, frequency stabilizers, and harmonic oscillators.
Pulse electronics is an electronic technique that operates with pulsed signals (single pulses of voltage and current or pulse trains). Examples of switching devices are pulse amplifiers and generators, voltage-to-frequency converters, and the like.
Digital electronics is an electronic technique that works with individual (discrete) values of voltages (currents, frequencies), represented in the form of numbers. Digital electronics devices include logical devices operating with signals 0 and 1, analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog converters, microprocessors, personal computers, complex computing devices. Digital electronics is closely related to pulse technology, as signals are transmitted in it by sequences of pulses.
The entire line of electronic equipment depends on the element base used, the development of which is devoted to the works of many scientists, their research and inventions. The path of development of electronic technology can be conditionally divided into several stages, the beginning of which begins from the moment of the discovery of electricity and its further study.
The purpose of this work is to trace this path in more detail, to get acquainted with the basics of the operation of electronic devices and devices, their appearance in the process of researching various properties of electricity and phenomena by scientists and physicists of different eras.
