MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF RUSSIA
FEDERAL STATE BUDGETARY EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION OF HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION "IZHEVSK STATE TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY NAMED AFTER M.T. KALASHNIKOV"
FACULTY "IWT"
DEPARTMENT "INFORMATICS"
"Information society"
Checked by Knyazev N.N.
Performed by student gr. B01-711-2zt Ananiev A.I.
Izhevsk 2014
Information society
Human society, as it developed, went through the stages of mastering matter, then energy, and, finally, information. In primitive-communal, slave-owning and feudal societies (which were based on craft), the activity of society as a whole and of each person individually was aimed primarily at mastering the substance.
At the dawn of civilization (tens of thousands of years BC), people learned how to make simple tools for labor and hunting ( stone ax, arrows, etc.), in antiquity the first mechanisms (lever, etc.) and vehicles (chariots, ships) appeared, in the Middle Ages the first complex tools and mechanisms (loom, clocks) were invented.
The mastery of energy was in this period at the initial stage; the sun, water, fire, wind and human muscular strength were used as energy sources.
From the very beginning of human history, there was a need to transmit and store information. Sign language was first used to convey information, and then human speech. Rock paintings began to be used to store information, and in the 4th millennium BC, writing and the first information carriers appeared (Sumerian clay tablets and Egyptian papyri). The history of the creation of devices for processing numerical information also begins in antiquity - with the abacus (counting board, which is the prototype of accounts).
SIGNS OF THE INFORMATION SOCIETY
1. Awareness by society of the priority of information over another product of human activity.
2. The fundamental basis of all areas of human activity (economic, industrial, political, educational, scientific, creative, cultural, etc.) is information.
3. Information is the product of modern man's activity.
4. Information in pure form(in itself) is the subject of purchase and sale.
5. Equal opportunities in access to information for all segments of the population.
6. Security information society, information.
7. Protection of intellectual property.
8. Interaction of all structures of the state and states among themselves on the basis of ICT.
9. Management of the information society by the state, public organizations.
First try automated processing information was the creation by Charles Babbage in the middle of the 19th century of a mechanical digital Analytical Engine. However, only from the middle of the 20th century, from the moment of the appearance of electronic devices for processing and storing information (computers, and then a personal computer), a gradual transition from an industrial society to an information society began.
In the information society, information is the main resource, it is on the basis of having information about a wide variety of processes and phenomena that any activity can be effectively and optimally built. It is important not only to produce a large number of products, but to make the right products in certain time and at certain costs. In the information society, not only the quality of consumption increases, but also the quality of production, a person using Information Technology, It has Better conditions labor, and labor becomes creative and intellectual.
In addition to positive aspects, dangerous trends are also predicted:
the growing influence of the media on society;
information technology can destroy the privacy of people and organizations;
· there is a problem of selection of high-quality and reliable information;
Many people will find it difficult to adapt to the information society environment.
· there is a danger of a gap between the "information elite" (people who
engaged in the development of information technology) and consumers.
Three criteria for the development of the information society can be selected: the availability of computers, the level of development of computer networks and the number of people employed in the information sphere, as well as using information and communication technologies in their work. daily activities.
Computer networks. Currently, a significant trend in the informatization of society is the transition from using computers offline to working in information networks.
Information networks create a real opportunity for quick and convenient user access to all the information accumulated by mankind in its history. E-mail and teleconferencing, searching for information on the World Wide Web and in file archives, interactive communication, listening to radio stations and watching television programs, shopping in Internet stores have become the daily practice of many computer users in developed countries.
The development of global computer networks began in the 80s of the XX century. In 1981, there were only 213 computers on the Internet, by the end of the 80s of the last century, the number of computers connected to the network had increased to 150 thousand, the fastest growth occurred over the past decade, and by the beginning of 2005 their number exceeded 300 million
By the number of available Internet servers, one can judge the degree of informatization of individual countries. Nai large quantity servers are registered in administrative-type domains (about 206 million servers), a significant part of which is registered in the United States, in second place, far behind, is Japan (19 million servers), Russia occupies 22nd place in this list (about 1.2 million servers)
The number of regular users of Internet resources and services in all countries of the world is approximately one billion people. In Russia, the number of users is growing rapidly and in 2005 was about 18 million people.
The population employed in the information sphere. According to the UN, in the 90s of the XX century, the number of workers employed in the information sphere (for whom information processing is the main production function), increased by about 25%, while the number of people employed in agriculture and industry decreased by 10% and 15%, respectively.
Computers and information technologies are intensively penetrating into the sphere of material production. An engineer, a farmer, and other traditional professions increasingly have a computer in their workplace and use information and communication technologies in their work. professional activity.
With the development of communication technologies and mobile communications an increasing number of people carry out their production activities remotely, i.e., working from home, and not in the office (there are more than 10 million people in the USA). Distance education and job search via the Internet are becoming more widespread. In 2000, the turnover of the world market of information and communication technologies amounted to about 1 trillion dollars. At the same time, less than half of this amount was spent on the purchase of hardware, most of it was invested in software development, computer network design, etc.
In accordance with the concept of Z. Brzezinski, D. Bell, O. Toffler, U Martin supported by other foreign scientists, the information society is a kind of post-industrial society. Considering social development as a “change of stages”, supporters of this concept of the information society associate his formation with the dominance of the "fourth", the information sector of the economy, following the three well-known sectors - agriculture, industry and the service economy.
The main features and characteristics of the information society:
availability of an information infrastructure consisting of cross-border information and telecommunication networks and information resources distributed in them as knowledge reserves;
mass use of personal computers connected to cross-border information and telecommunication networks (TITS). It is mass, otherwise it is not society, but the totality of its individual members;
readiness of members of the society to work on personal computers and in cross-border information and telecommunication networks;
new forms and types of activities in TITS or in the virtual space (everyday labor activity in networks, purchase and sale of goods and services, communication and communication, recreation and entertainment, medical care, etc.);
the opportunity for everyone to receive complete, accurate and reliable information from TITS almost instantly;
almost instantaneous communication of every member of society with everyone, everyone with everyone and everyone with everyone (for example, “chats” on interests on the Internet);
transformation of the activities of the mass media (media), integration of the media and TITS, creation of a single environment for the dissemination of mass information - multimedia;
absence of geographic and geopolitical borders of the TITS member states, “collision* and “breaking” of the national legislations of countries in these networks, the formation of a new international information law and legislation.
According to Professor W. Martin, the information society is established, first of all, in those countries - in Japan , USA and Western Europe - in which a post-industrial society was formed in the 60s - 70s. W. Martin made an attempt to identify and formulate the main characteristics (features) of the information society according to the following criteria.
- Technological: the key factor is information technology, which is widely used in production, institutions, the education system and in everyday life.
- Social: information acts as an important stimulant for changing the quality of life, "information consciousness" is formed and affirmed with wide access to information.
- Economic: information is a key factor in the economy as a resource, service, product, source of value added and employment.
- Political: freedom of information leading to a political process characterized by growing participation and consensus between different classes and social strata of the population.
- Cultural: recognition of the cultural value of information by promoting the assertion of information values in the interests of the development of the individual and society as a whole.
In the history of social development, one can distinguish several informationalrevolutions (stages).
First Information Revolution associated with the invention of writing, which led to a giant qualitative and quantitative leap in the information development of society. It became possible to fix knowledge on a material carrier, thereby alienating it from the manufacturer and passing it on from generation to generation. Second Information Revolution(mid-16th century) was caused by the invention of printing (the first printers Gutenberg and Ivan Fedorov). The possibility of replicating and active dissemination of information has appeared, the accessibility of people to sources of knowledge has increased. The Third Information Revolution(the end of the 19th century) is due to the invention of electricity, thanks to which the telegraph, telephone, radio appeared, allowing you to quickly transmit and accumulate information in significant volumes. The consequence of this revolution is an increase in the degree of dissemination of information, an increase in the information "coverage" of the population by means of broadcasting. Fourth Information Revolution(mid-XX century) associated with the invention computer science and the advent of the personal computer, the creation of communication networks and telecommunications. It became possible to accumulate, store, process and transmit information in electronic form. Today we are experiencing fifth information revolution connected with the formation and development of cross-border global information and telecommunication networks, covering all countries and continents, penetrating into every home and affecting at the same time both each person individually and huge masses of people. The essence of this revolution is to integrate into a single information space by around the world of software and hardware, means of communication and telecommunications, information stocks or stocks of knowledge as a single information telecommunications infrastructure in which legal entities and individuals, public authorities and local governments are actively operating.
4. The concept of the information society. Main signs and trends of development.
Information society- this is a stage in the development of modern civilization, characterized by an increase in the role of information and knowledge in the life of society, an increase in the share of information and communication technologies, information products and services in the gross domestic product, the creation of a global information infrastructure that ensures effective information interaction of people, their access to information and satisfaction of their social and personal needs in information products and services.
Distinctive features:
increasing the role of information, knowledge and information technologies in the life of society;
an increase in the number of people employed in information technology, communications and the production of information products and services, an increase in their share in the gross domestic product;
the growing informatization of society with the use of telephony, radio, television, the Internet, as well as traditional and electronic media;
creation of a global information space that ensures: (a) effective information interaction of people, (b) their access to the world's information resources, and (c) satisfaction of their needs for information products and services;
development of e-democracy, information economy, e-government, e-government, digital markets, electronic social and economic networks;
Development trends.
First trend- this is the formation of a new historical type of civil property - intellectual property, which is simultaneously the public property of the entire population of the planet.
Intellectual property, unlike material objects, by its nature is not alienated either from their creator or from the one who uses it. Consequently, this property is both individual and public, that is, the common property of citizens.
Next trend- this is a restructuring of labor motivation (for example, in cyberspace, everyone can act simultaneously as a producer of information, a publisher and a distributor).
Next, it should be noted radical change in social differentiation the information society itself, dividing it not into classes, but into poorly differentiated information communities. And this is primarily due to access to knowledge and a variety of information for the general population of the planet.
Now knowledge is not the prerogative of the rich, noble, successful. The boundaries between traditional classes are gradually “washed away”
Next trend- this is the wide participation of segments of the population in the processes of preparation, adoption and implementation of managerial decisions, as well as in control over their implementation. For example, this primarily concerns electronic voting in elections to local authorities.
In general, one can conclude, which in their totality and in a generalized form are observed two interrelated trends development of the information society. The first is in the civil socialization economic structures and private property relations, in limiting state power. Socialization does not lead to the destruction of capital, but to a change in its character, giving it certain social and civilized forms. This limits and suppresses his selfish traits. And this process in one form or another (“cooperative”, “shareholder”) has taken its rightful place in most developed countries. The second trend is individualization economic and social processes, their filling with diverse personal content (people are increasingly sitting at home, working at home).
1. Awareness by society of the priority of information over another product of human activity.
2. The fundamental basis of all areas of human activity (economic, industrial, political, educational, scientific, creative, cultural, etc.) is information.
3. Information is the product of modern man's activity.
4. Information in its pure form (in itself) is the subject of purchase and sale.
5. Equal opportunities in access to information for all segments of the population.
6. Security of the information society, information.
7. Protection of intellectual property.
8. Interaction of all structures of the state and states among themselves on the basis of ICT.
9. Management of the information society by the state, public organizations.
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26. Strategic information systems
27. Hand ICs
Strategic Information System (SIS) is a computer information system that provides support for decision-making on the implementation of long-term strategic goals for the development of an organization.
Strategic information systems are intended primarily for solving unstructured problems, long-term planning and use by top managers without intermediaries. Very often, strategic information systems are developed and implemented as an integral part of corporate information systems (CIS), since it is impossible to carry out long-term planning if there is no complete information about the activities of the enterprise.
The main task of strategic level information systems is to compare the changes taking place in the external environment with the existing potential of the company. They are designed to create a common environment for computer telecommunications decision support in unexpected situations. Using the most advanced programs, these systems are able to provide information from many sources at any time. Some strategic systems are characterized by limited analytical capabilities.
In manual information systems, all information processing processes are carried out manually. Information arrays of manual systems have a small volume, data is stored on media of various types. To search for information in such systems, simple selective devices are used. In fact, manual information systems are not systems, but devices that facilitate the search for the necessary information according to a certain set of features. These devices are cheap, easy to use, and highly qualified service personnel are not required for their operation.
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28. Characteristics of management information systems
29. Automatic and automated ICs
Information system - a set of software and electronic information storage, developed as a single system and designed to automate a certain type of activity. Information systems are characterized by: - Multidimensionality, - Multifunctionality, - Various areas of application. The characteristics of the IC depend on the scope of application. For example, management ISs have very little analytical capabilities. They serve managers who need daily, weekly information about the state of affairs. Their main purpose is to track daily operations in the company and periodically generate strictly structured summary standard reports. The information comes from the information system of the operational level. Characteristics of management information systems: 1. are used to support decision-making of structured and semi-structured tasks at the level of control over operations; 2. focused on control, reporting and decision-making on the operational situation; 3. rely on existing data and its flows within the organization; 4. have small analytical capabilities and inflexible structure. Decision support systems serve partially structured tasks, the results of which are difficult to predict in advance. They have a more powerful analytical apparatus with multiple models. Information is obtained from management and operational information systems.
According to the degree of automation, ISs are divided into:
- automated: information systems in which automation may be incomplete (i.e., constant intervention of personnel is required);
- automatic: information systems in which automation is complete, i.e. no or only occasional intervention by personnel is required.
"Hand-held ICs" ("without a computer") cannot exist, since existing definitions prescribe obligatory the presence in the IS of hardware software tools. As a result, the concepts of "automated information system", "computer information system" and simply "information system" are synonymous.
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30. Difference between managing directors and advising ECs
31. PMI Project Management Methods
Management information systems produce information on the basis of which a person makes a decision. These systems are characterized by the type of tasks of a computational nature and the processing of large amounts of data. An example is the system of operational planning of production, the accounting system.
^ Advising Information Systems produce information that is taken into account by a person and does not immediately turn into a series of specific actions. These systems have a higher degree of intelligence, as they are characterized by the processing of knowledge rather than data.
The PMI methodology proposes project management through a set of standard processes, however, in the fourth edition of this standard there have been very significant changes - in particular, it describes the methods of analytical work and the use of artificial intelligence systems to predict project performance.
The main procedures and processes of this approach are the definition of project requirements; formulating clearly defined, achievable goals; balancing conflicting project constraints; and finally, modifying the plans, specifications, and methods of working on the project according to the needs and concerns of the stakeholders.
The PMBOK (Project Management Base of Knowledge) standard describes four main process groups:
Processes related to comprehensive project planning – project management plan, project scope planning, work and activity listing, resource planning, project scheduling, quality, communications and human resource planning, risk management plan, procurement and contract planning.
Processes related to project implementation - project implementation management, quality assurance, team management and development, information and communication, interaction with suppliers, and so on.
Processes related to monitoring and control - monitoring and managing work, change management, schedule monitoring, project scope management, quality control, cost management, reporting, risk management, and so on.
The processes that complete the project are the delivery of the product and the transfer of responsibility and authority; closing the project and related contracts.
This methodology is the American national standard for project management.
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32. The concept of corporate IS (CIS)
33. The concept of MRPII
Corporate Information Systems (CIS)- these are integrated management systems for a geographically distributed corporation based on in-depth data analysis, widespread use of decision-making information support systems, electronic document management and office work. CIS are designed to combine the strategy of enterprise management and advanced information technologies.
Corporate information system is a set of technical and software tools of the enterprise that implement the ideas and methods of automation.
Comprehensive automation of enterprise business processes based on modern hardware and software support may be called differently. Currently, along with the name Corporate Information Systems (CIS), for example, the following names are used:
Automated control systems (ACS);
Integrated Management Systems (IMS);
Integrated Information Systems (IIS)
Enterprise Management Information Systems (EMIS).
the main task KIS- effective management of all enterprise resources ( logistical, financial, technological and intellectual) to maximize profits and meet the material and professional needs of all employees of the enterprise.
^ CIS on its composition is a collection of various software and hardware platforms, universal and specialized applications of various developers, integrated into a single information-homogeneous system that best solves in some way the unique task of each specific enterprise. That is, CIS is a human-machine system and a tool for supporting human intellectual activity, which, under its influence, should:
Accumulate certain experience and formalized knowledge;
Constantly improve and develop; Quickly adapt to changing environmental conditions and new needs of the enterprise.
The concept of MRP (Material Requirements Planning) is a system for automated planning of the need for raw materials and materials for production. The main goal of MRP systems is to minimize the costs associated with inventory.
Soon, the MRP method became widespread throughout the world, and in some countries (including the CIS countries) it is even sometimes treated as a standard, although it is not.
MRP II, unlike MRP, involves the planning of all enterprise resources, including equipment, human resources, material and financial resources. MRP II allows all departments of the enterprise to use the information of one system from the sales department to the marketing department, the supply department, the financial department, the design department, and also in production.
The MRP method is based on data from the Master Production Schedule (MPS), in which the starting point is the expected demand for finished products. Thus, the progressiveness of the MRP method lies in the fact that it does not operate on consumption data from the past, but focuses on future needs. This means that a restocking order is generated only when it is really needed, and that restocking is done to the extent that it is actually needed.
The method of planning production resources, which underlies ERP systems and is called MRP II (Manufacturing Resource Planning II), is the result of the natural development of the MRP method. Since MRP is intended for material planning, the idea to cover the areas of activity that affect the replenishment or cost of materials seems quite logical. The thing is that MRP is guided by the principle of unlimited loading (infinite loading), i. ignores limited production capacity.
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34. The concept of ERP
35. The concept of physical and logical organization of data.
ERP-system is a set of integrated applications that allow you to create an integrated information environment (IIS) to automate the planning, accounting, control and analysis of all major business operations of the enterprise. ERP-systems are the basis of IIS of an enterprise.
As originally defined by the American Society for Production and Inventory Management: "ERP is a method for effectively planning and controlling all the resources needed to receive, fulfill, ship, and account for customer orders in a manufacturing, distribution, or service company."
In the latest edition of APICS: "ERP is an approach for organizing, defining and standardizing the business processes necessary to enable an enterprise to use internal knowledge to seek external advantage."
As a rule, ERP systems are built on a modular basis and, to one degree or another, cover all the key processes of the company's activities (Fig. 1). Used in ERP systems software tools allows you to carry out production planning, simulate the flow of orders and evaluate the possibility of their implementation in the services and divisions of the enterprise, linking it with sales.
In 1990, the following ERP-based IS formula was proposed:
ERP= MRP II + FRP + DRP,
where FRP - not only materials and time of work centers, but also financial resources are subject to planning, DRP - distribution resource management.
Main functions of ERP systems:
maintaining design and technological specifications that determine the composition of manufactured products, as well as material resources and operations necessary for its manufacture;
Formation of sales and production plans;
· planning the needs for materials and components, terms and volumes of deliveries to fulfill the production plan;
· management of stocks and purchases: maintenance of contracts, implementation of centralized purchases, accounting and optimization of warehouse and shop stocks;
planning of production capacities: from the strategy of the entire enterprise to plans for the use of individual machines and equipment;
operational management of finances, including drawing up a financial plan and monitoring its implementation, financial and management accounting;
· project management, including planning the stages and resources required for their implementation.
Global logical data organization is a general organization or conceptual model of a database from which various external data organizations can be derived. This logical representation of the data is completely independent of the physical organization of the data. It is described in a data description language (DDL), which is part of the database management software;
Physical organization of data- this is the physical representation of data and their location on storage devices. It depends on the means of physical search for records - indicators, pointers, chains, etc. - and is determined by the presence of overflow areas and means of adding (inclusion) new records and deleting unnecessary and old records.
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36. Modern concepts of CIS.
37. Data model, its purpose.
Currently, several concepts of CISP are used in developed countries.
1. Enterprise resource management system (the following abbreviations are often used: MRP (Material Requirements Planning) - material requirements planning, MRPII (Manufacturing Resource Plfnning) - production resource planning, ERP (Enterprise Resourct Plfnning) - enterprise resource planning).
2. Logistics management system (SCM - Supply Chain Management - management of supply channels).
3. Product data management system based on industrial enterprises(PDM - Product Development Management - product assembly management).
4. The system of computer-aided design and technological preparation of production (CAD / CAM - Computer-Aided Design / Manufacturing - computer-aided design and production).
5. Document management system (docflow - document flow).
6. Information automated accounting system (AIS -Accounting Information System). An accounting information system supports two main business functions: business transaction recording and decision support. This is a part of the information system that is related to the assessment, analysis and forecasting of income, profits and other economic events in the enterprise as a whole and in its subsections separately.
7. Data presentation system for management analysis (MIS – Management Information System).
8. Workspace organization systems (workflow).
9. Internet/Intranet environment.
10. System of electronic commerce (e-commerce).
11. Specialized software products or systems for solving other problems.
The concept of MRPII (Manufacturing Resource Planning - planning of production resources) is a methodology for detailed planning of the production of an enterprise, which includes accounting, planning the utilization of production capacities, planning the needs for all production resources (materials, raw materials, components, equipment, personnel), planning production costs, modeling production progress, its accounting, release planning finished products, operational adjustment of the plan and production tasks.
ERP (Enterprise Resourct Plfnning - enterprise resource planning) is a modern concept that is the development of MRPII. It allows you to track not only production, but also other resources of the enterprise (financial, marketing, etc.). This concept has great functionality, it pays significant attention to finance and decision support tools. It provides an opportunity to plan and manage not only production processes, but also the entire activity of the enterprise, to achieve optimization of the latter in terms of resources and time.
In classical database theory, a data model is a formal theory of data representation and processing in a database management system (DBMS), which includes at least three aspects:
1) structure aspect: methods for describing the types and logical structures of data in the database;
2) aspect of manipulation: data manipulation methods;
3) aspect of integrity: methods for describing and maintaining the integrity of the database.
The structure aspect defines what the database is logically, the manipulation aspect defines how to transition between database states (that is, how data is modified) and how to retrieve data from the database, the integrity aspect defines the means of describing the correct database states.
A data model is an abstract, self-sufficient, logical definition of objects, operators, and other elements that together make up an abstract data access machine with which a user interacts. These objects allow you to model the structure of the data, and operators - the behavior of the data.
Each database and DBMS is built on the basis of some explicit or implicit data model. All DBMSs built on the same data model are of the same type. For example, relational DBMSs are based on a relational data model, network DBMSs are based on a network data model, hierarchical DBMSs are based on a hierarchical data model, and so on.
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38. Basic data models.
39. What typical data structures are used in the hierarchical and network model.
Network Data Model (NDM)
The network model allows you to organize databases, the structure of which is represented by a general graph (an example of RDM is shown in Fig. 2.4). The organization of data in the network model corresponds to the structuring of data according to the CODASYL version. Each vertex of the graph stores entity instances (records of one type) and information about group relationships with entities of other types. Each record can store an arbitrary number of attribute values (data elements and aggregates) that characterize an entity instance. For each record type, a primary key is allocated - an attribute whose value allows you to uniquely identify the record among record instances of this type.
Links between records in the SMD are performed in the form of pointers, i.e. each record stores a link to another record of the same type (or a sign of the end of the list) and links to lists of subordinate records associated with it by group relations. Thus, at each vertex, the records are stored as a linked list. If the list is organized as unidirectional, the entry has a link to the next entry of the same type in the list; if the list is bidirectional, then to the next and previous records of the same type.
Hierarchical Data Model (HDM)
The hierarchical model allows you to build a database with a hierarchical tree structure. The IMD structure is described in terms similar to those of the network data model (CODASYL version). A group in IMD is usually called a segment. The concept of a tree is at the heart of IMD.
A tree is a connected undirected graph that does not contain cycles. When working with a tree, a particular vertex is singled out, defined as the root of the tree, and considered separately - not a single edge enters this vertex. In this case, the tree becomes oriented, the orientation is determined from the root. A tree as a directed graph is defined as follows:
there is a single special vertex, called the root, into which no edge enters;
only one edge enters all other vertices, and an arbitrary number of edges goes out;
the graph does not contain cycles.
The terminal vertices, that is, the vertices from which no arc leaves, are called the leaves of the tree. The number of vertices on the path from the root to the leaves in different branches of the tree can be different.
In hierarchical data models, the tree structure is oriented from the root to the leaves. A graphical diagram of the conceptual schema of a database is called a definition tree. An example of a hierarchical database is shown in fig. 2.6. Each non-root vertex in the IMD is associated with the parent vertex (segment) by a hierarchical group relationship. Each node of the tree corresponds to the software entity type. An entity type is characterized by an arbitrary number of attributes associated with it in a 1:1 relationship. Attributes associated with an entity by a 1:n relationship form a separate entity (segment) and are transferred to the next level of the hierarchy. The implementation of n:m relationships is not supported.
Relational Data Model (RMD) - logical model data, applied theory of database construction, which is an application to data processing problems of such sections of mathematics as set theory and first-order logic.
Relational databases are built on the relational data model.
The relational data model includes the following components:
Structural aspect (component) - the data in the database is a set of relationships.
Aspect (component) of integrity - relations (tables) meet certain conditions of integrity. RMD supports declarative integrity constraints at the domain level (data type), relationship level, and database level.
Processing (manipulation) aspect (component) - RDM supports relation manipulation operators (relational algebra, relational calculus).
In addition, the normalization theory is included in the relational data model.
The term "relational" means that the theory is based on the mathematical concept of relation. The word table is often used as an informal synonym for the term "relationship". It must be remembered that "table" is a non-strict and informal concept and often does not mean "relationship" as an abstract concept, but a visual representation of the relationship on paper or screen. Incorrect and loose use of the term "table" instead of the term "relation" often leads to misunderstanding. The most common mistake is to think that RDM deals with "flat" or "two-dimensional" tables, when only visual representations of tables can be. Relations, on the other hand, are abstractions, and cannot be either “flat” or “non-flat”.
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40. What typical data structures are used in the file model.
41. Expand the basic concepts of the relational data model.
The main types of data structures of the file model are field, record, file. The record is the main structural unit of data processing and the unit of exchange between operational and external memory. The field is the elementary unit of the logical organization of data, which corresponds to a separate, indivisible unit of information - attribute. A record is a collection of fields corresponding to logically related attributes. The structure of a record is determined by the composition and sequence of the fields included in it, each of which contains an elementary data. A file is a set of instances of records identical in structure with values in separate fields. A record instance is an implementation of a record that contains specific field values. The file record structure is linear, that is, the fields have a single value and there is no group data. Each record instance is uniquely identified by a unique record key. In general, there are two types of record keys: primary (unique) and secondary key.
In mathematical disciplines, the concept of "table" corresponds to the concept of "relation" (relation). The table reflects the object of the real world - the entity , and each of its lines reflects a specific instance of the entity. Each column has a unique name for the table. Strings do not have names, their order is not defined, and their number is not logically limited. One of the main advantages of RDM is uniformity (each row of a table has one format). The user himself decides whether the corresponding entities have homogeneity. This solves the problem of model suitability. The main elements of RMD are shown in fig. 13.
A relation is a two-dimensional table containing some data. An entity is an object of any nature, data about which is stored in a database. Attributes are properties that characterize an entity (columns). The degree of relationship is the number of columns. Relation scheme - a list of attribute names, for example, EMPLOYEE (No., Full name, Year of birth, Position, Department). Domain – set of relation attribute values (data type). A tuple is a table row. Cardinality (power) - the number of rows in the table.
primary key - this is an attribute that uniquely identifies the relationship rows. A primary key with multiple attributes is called a composite key. The primary key cannot be completely or partially empty (have null). Keys that can be used as primary keys are called potential or alternate keys. External key - is an attribute(s) of one table that can serve as the primary key of another table.
Ticket number 21
- What typical data structures are used in the hierarchical and network model?
- What is the normalization of tables (relations) in a relational model, what is it for?
Structural part of the hierarchical model
The main information units in the hierarchical data model are the segment and the field. A data field is defined as the smallest indivisible unit of data, available to the user. For a segment, a segment type and a segment instance are defined. A segment instance is formed from specific data field values. A segment type is a named collection of its data field types.
Like the network, the hierarchical data model is based on the graph form of data construction, and at the conceptual level, it is just a special case of the network data model. In a hierarchical data model, the top of the graph corresponds to a segment type or just a segment, and to the arcs - the types of ancestor - descendant relationships. In hierarchical structures, a descendant segment must have exactly one parent.
The hierarchical model is a connected undirected graph of a tree structure that combines segments. A hierarchical database consists of an ordered set of trees.
The technology developed by CODASYL uses several different generic data structures, the main ones being: record types and sets. To build these structures, such structural elements as a data element, an aggregate are used. Data structuring is based on the concepts of aggregation and generalization. Aggregation is used to compose data items into a record. Generalization is used to combine file records of the same type. Consider the main elements of the network data model. The data element is the smallest named information unit data available to the user (analogue - a field in file system). The data element must have its own type (not structural, simple). The data aggregate corresponds to the next level of generalization - a named collection of data elements within a record or other aggregate (Fig. 4.02).
Normalization is a formalized procedure during which data attributes (fields) are grouped into tables, and tables, in turn, into databases. The goals of normalization are:
Eliminate duplication of information in tables.
Russian Institute of Management
Course work
in the discipline "Theory of State and Law" on the topic:
“Information Society: Concept and Trends”
Is done by a student
_________________
reg. room _________________
Specialty: "Jurisprudence"
Moscow
1. INTRODUCTION
2. Main part. INFORMATION SOCIETY: CONCEPT AND TRENDS
2.1. The concept and essence of information
2.2. Development of ideas about information
2.3. The concept and essence of the information society
2.4. Causes and consequences of information revolutions
2.5. The emergence and main stages of the development of the information society
2.6. Informatization of society at present
2.7. Information society and power
2.8. Computerization of modern society
2.9.
3. CONCLUSION
4. REFERENCES
1. INTRODUCTION
The information society is one of the theoretical models used to describe a qualitatively new stage of social development, which the developed countries have entered with the beginning of the information and computer revolution. The technological basis of society is not industrial, but information and telecommunication technologies (ITT).
The information society is a society in which: Information becomes the main economic resource, and the information sector comes out on top in terms of development rates, in terms of the number of employees, in terms of the share of capital investments, in terms of the share in GDP. ITT are becoming the main means of increasing production efficiency, strengthening competitiveness both in the domestic and global markets. There is a developed infrastructure that ensures the creation of sufficient information resources. This is primarily the education system and science.
There is a redistribution of resources in favor of science and education. In the United States, the so-called accumulated human capital is three times the assets of all American corporations.
The main form of ownership is intellectual property. In the competitive struggle for the world championship, a new factor appears - the level of development of the information infrastructure and industry.
Information becomes the subject of mass consumption. The information society provides any individual with access to any source of information. This is guaranteed by law (military and state secrets are also determined by law) and technical capabilities.
There are new criteria for assessing the level of development of society - the number of computers, the number of Internet connections, the number of mobile and fixed phones, etc.
The legal foundations of the information society are being developed. A single integrated information system is being formed on the basis of technological convergence (the merger of telecommunications, computer-electronic, audiovisual technology).
Unified national information systems are being created (in the USA - in the 80s, in Western Europe - in the 90s).
The information society is formed as a global one and includes: the world "information economy"; single global information space; global information infrastructure; emerging global legal system.
In the information society, business activity flows into the information and communication environment. A virtual economy, a virtual financial system, and the like are being formed, which raises the most important questions about the mechanisms of their regulation and connection with the real, "physical" economy.
2. The main part. INFORMATION SOCIETY: CONCEPT AND TRENDS
2.1. The concept and essence of information
Often the concept of "information" is used without thinking about the depth of its content, identifying the concepts of knowledge, data, information.
Obviously, the "everyday" use of the term "information" is completely inappropriate when it comes to the theory or theories of information. Often, in these theoretical constructions, the term "information" is filled with different meanings, and, therefore, the theories themselves highlight only part of the facets of a certain system of knowledge, which can be called the general theory of information or "informology" - the science of the processes and tasks of the transmission, distribution, processing and transformation of information.
The emergence of informology as a science can be attributed to the end of the 50s of our century, when the American engineer R. Hartley made an attempt to introduce a quantitative measure of information transmitted through communication channels.
The scientific definition of information is given quite simply, if we assume that information is a dynamic object that does not exist in nature on its own, but is formed during the interaction of data and methods. It exists only as long as this interaction lasts, and the rest of the time it remains in the form of data.
The Soviet Encyclopedic Dictionary gives the following definition of information. Information (from Latin informatio - "clarification", "exposition"), originally - information transmitted by people orally, in writing or in another way (through conditional signals, technical means, and so on); since the middle of the 20th century, it has been a general scientific concept that includes the exchange of information between people, a person and an automaton, an automaton and an automaton.
Information is one of the basic concepts of cybernetics in the section of information theory. In information theory, mathematical methods are used to study how to measure the amount of information contained in any messages and how information is transmitted.
Information is the product of the interaction of data and methods, considered in the context of this interaction.
Information appears in the process of communication with a certain object. Without communication with the object, obtaining information is almost impossible.
For example, in order to catch the necessary information from a newspaper, it is necessary to read the newspaper itself and draw conclusions, that is, collect and process information. If we just touch the newspaper, we will not get the necessary information.
Communication - transmission of a message from one side to another (who is with whom, through what, what is the content, the effects of communication).
Communication can occur at several levels - between individuals, between social groups, within the same society, between different societies.
Different signs in communication are endowed with different semantic meanings and are presented in the form of codes.
Much of modern communication is organized as institutions that appeal to mass audiences.
Communication is what is transmitted, these are forms of ownership, internal structure, the value of the organization, the reaction of the audience.
In our definition, it is important to clarify “…considered in the context of this interaction.” Here are some examples of why this is really important. Books are known to be data stores. They are designed to obtain information by reading. But if you try different books by touch or taste, you can also get information.
Such methods will make it possible to distinguish books made in leather, cardboard and paper bindings. Of course, these are not the methods that the authors of the books intended, but they also provide information, although not complete.
Analyzing informational value newspapers, magazines, TV shows, we can conclude that it depends both on the data and on the methods by which they are consumed. It is one thing to carefully watch a TV movie, listening to every word, and quite another to watch it while talking on the phone.
2.2. Development of ideas about information
Despite the fact that the concept of information is very widely used in science and in everyday life, its strict scientific definition did not exist until recently. To this day, different scientific disciplines introduce this concept in different ways. There are three possible approaches here: anthropocentric, technocentric and non-deterministic .
essence anthropocentric approach is that information is identified with information and facts, which theoretically can be obtained and assimilated, that is, converted into knowledge. This approach is currently the most widely used. We can see examples of it, in particular, in Russian legislation.
“Information is understood as information about persons, objects, facts, events, phenomena and processes, regardless of the form of their presentation”
(Federal Law No. 24-F3 No. “On Information, Informatization and Information Protection” dated January 25, 1995, “Rossiyskaya Gazeta” No. 39 dated February 22, 1995)
essence technocentric approach is that information is identified with data. This approach has become very widespread in technical disciplines. For example, we often come across mentions that “information is transmitted over computer networks”, “information is processed by computers”, “information is stored in databases”. In all these cases there is a substitution of concepts.
The fact is that only data is transmitted over computer networks, computers process only data, and only data is stored in databases. Whether this data becomes information, and if so, which one, depends not only on the data, but also on numerous hardware, software, and natural methods.
In Russian legislation, we do not find clear signs of a technocentric approach, but they are found in the laws of other states, such as Germany. In particular, concepts such as information, access to information, modification of information, in all cases when it comes to exploitation technical systems, are presented as data, data access, data modification .
Non-deterministic approach to the concept of information is also found quite widely. It consists in the rejection of the definition of information on the grounds that it is fundamental, as, for example, matter and energy. In particular, we will not find a definition of information in the “Law on State Secrets” and in the “Law on the Mass Media”, although this concept is used in both legal acts.
The absence of a definition of the concept used is not at all an oversight of the legislator. In many cases, the refusal to define information can be considered traditional. So, for example, we will not find a definition of information in such a respected reference publication as the Encyclopædia Britannica. The definition can only be obtained indirectly through the article "Information processing and information systems", which states that "... this term is used in relation to the facts and judgments received in everyday life from other living beings, from the media, from electronic databases, as well as by observing environmental phenomena.”
Both anthropocentric and technocentric approaches are mixed here, after which the definition is reduced to the everyday level. At the same time, an extensive list of literature published over the past 50 years is given, the analysis of which did not give a direct definition.
2.3. The essence and concept of the information society
To begin with, it is necessary to understand exactly what a “post-industrial society” is.
The society in which we live at the beginning of the 21st century is called the information society.
The term "information society" appeared in the United States in the theory of the same name in the 70s of the XX century. So they began to call a society that outgrew the industrial one.
In modern literature, many definitions of post-industrial society are given, but in my term paper I chose, in my opinion, the most complete and accurate definition.
So, between the post-industrial society and the information society, you can put an equal sign, because. modern post-industrial society in its daily activities can not do without information technology.
Information society (Information society) - the concept of post-industrial society; a new historical phase in the development of civilization, in which the main products of production are information and knowledge.
Post-industrial society, in turn, is a society in which the service sector has a priority development and prevails over the volume of industrial production and agricultural production.
In the social structure of the post-industrial society, the number of people employed in the service sector is increasing and new elites are being formed: technocrats, scientists.
The hallmarks of the information society are:
1.) increasing the role of information and knowledge in the life of society;
2.) an increase in the share of information communications, products and services in the gross domestic product;
3.) creation of a global information space that provides:
a) effective information interaction of people;
b) their access to world information resources;
c) meeting their needs for information products and services.
The service sector involves the mass service of the population. It was thanks to the emergence of such a sphere as the service sector that the emergence of a global information infrastructure took place, the users of which are the entire information society.
New information technologies are used in almost all areas of activity and have a huge impact on social reality, greatly changing it.
Philosophers associate the main change with the emergence of a new social structure - the information infrastructure.
First of all, let's define the concept of "information infrastructure".
Information infrastructure is a set of means for processing and using information, combined into computer and information networks. Toffler believes that the information infrastructure will become the basis of the social and economic activities of the future, and will also allow any person to receive all the information of interest to him at any time and in any place.
The Global Information Infrastructure (GII) is an information entity that began to take shape in 1995 by a group of developed countries.
The global information infrastructure is being developed as a worldwide information queuing network for the planet's population based on the integration of global and regional information and telecommunication systems, as well as digital television and radio broadcasting systems, satellite systems and mobile communications.
So, the information revolution launched the process of building an information society. Some theorists (for example, Y. Masuda) predict its establishment in developed countries in the middle of the 21st century.
2.4. Causes and consequences of information revolutions
Until the 16th century, the activity of society was aimed at mastering the substance, that is, the knowledge of the properties of matter and the manufacture of first primitive, and then more complex tools.
Then, in the process of the formation of an industrial society, the problem of mastering energy came to the fore - first thermal, then electrical, and finally, in the 20th century, atomic energy. The mastery of energy made it possible to master the mass production of consumer values and, as a result, to raise the standard of living of people and change the nature of their work.
At the same time, people have always had a need to express and remember information about the world around them.
Several information revolutions have taken place in the history of the development of civilizations.
First revolution associated with the invention of writing. It became possible to disseminate knowledge and preserve it for transmission to future generations.
Second revolution(mid-16th century) was caused by the invention of printing, which radically changed social culture.
Third revolution(late 19th century) due to the invention of electricity. Telegraph, telephone, radio appeared, allowing to quickly transmit information.
Fourth revolution(70s of the XX century) is associated with the invention of the personal computer (PC).
The creation of personal computers was predetermined by the growing volumes of information that are difficult to cope with using traditional technologies: paper and pen. This contradiction began to have a negative impact on the growth rate of scientific and technological progress (STP). They began to talk about the "information explosion", calling so the rapid growth of flows and volumes of information.
As a result, as a means for storing, processing and transmitting information, scientific and technological progress offered society a personal computer.
2.5. The emergence and main stages of the development of the information society
In the 1980s and 1990s, philosophers and sociologists developed the theory of the information society. In this work, the efforts of such well-known philosophers in the West as Yoshita Masuda, Zbigniew Brzezinski (some time ago a former adviser to the President of the United States), and J. Nasbitt were combined.
But the theory of the information society of the American philosopher Alvin Toffler (b. 1928) is best known, since his sensational books “Futureshock” (Shock from a collision with the future, 1971), “Ecospasm” (1975), “Third Wave” (1980) we have were translated.
Toffler, like many other Western philosophers, criticized the shortcomings of the industrial society, noted its crisis and signs of transition to a new form of existence, the information society.
The transformation of society into informational Toffler connects with information revolution which began in the second half of the 20th century.
The information revolution, as Alwyn Toffler notes, consists of two revolutions:
1) computer;
2) telecommunications.
The telecommunications revolution begins in the mid-1970s and merges with the computer one. The computer revolution begins much earlier and proceeds in several stages.
First big stage covers the years 1930-1970, which is called the "zero cycle". It begins with the creation of the first computers by the American physicist J. Atanasov and the German engineer K. Zuse.
At this stage, in 1951, the first commercial computer UNIVAC-1 was created (it weighed 30 tons, contained 18 thousand lamps and performed 5 thousand operations per second). Second significant stage computer revolution begins with the creation of the first personal computers and their mass production.
The telecommunications revolution is associated with the creation
a) fiber optic technologies;
b) satellite technologies.
The confluence of computer and telecommunication technologies has created a multitude of new products and services on the market. The information and telecommunications industry has now become a key sector of the economy of developed countries.
Developed countries prefer to import consumer goods, but export products information industry, and on their sale to earn national wealth.
Information technology is expensive, much more expensive than consumer goods, which ensures that developed countries continue to have a high standard of living, far exceeding that of developing countries.
In addition, leadership in information technology gives them the opportunity to continue to claim political leadership in the world.
For example, the United States is one of the recognized leaders in world politics, controls more than 40% of the information technology trade market.
The United States has mothballed its fossil resources and imports more goods than it exports, but exports more services (especially in the field of information technology) than it imports.
The leadership in the field of informatization of the United States is understandable: 41% of all computers in the world are located there; 40% of families there own personal computers, and 20% - modems, that is, they are Internet users.
Thanks to the merging of the computer and telecommunications revolutions, it became possible to create information networks of enormous proportions, up to global ones. Through these networks, it is possible to transmit, find and process the necessary information much faster.
2.6. Informatization of society at present
Until recently, no one imagined that humanity would be on the verge of new era in the development of civilization - information.
Currently, there is an active process of informatization of society.
Informatization is understood as the active introduction of computer technology and new information technologies in various areas of production, public and private life of people.
The information society is a society in which the majority of workers are engaged in the production, storage, processing, sale and exchange of information.
Recently there has been new category culture - informational. This is due to the fact that in order to live and work in the information society, a person must be prepared for the rapid perception and processing of large amounts of information; he needs to master modern means, methods and technology of work.
In addition, in the new living conditions, the degree of awareness of one person directly depends on the information acquired by other people. Therefore, it is no longer enough to be able to independently master and accumulate information, but one should learn such a technology for working with information when decisions are prepared and made on the basis of collective knowledge. Thus, a person must have a certain level of culture to work with information.
information culture- the ability to purposefully work with information and use computer information technology, modern tools and methods to receive, process and transmit it.
Being the most important component of culture as a whole, information culture is a product of a variety of human creative abilities.
Information culture is manifested in the following:
In specific skills in the use of various technical devices - from telephone to personal computer and computer networks;
The ability to use computer information technology in their work;
In the ability to extract information from various sources - from periodicals to electronic communications;
The ability to present information in an understandable way and use it effectively;
In knowledge of analytical methods of information processing;
The ability to work with various types information.
Information culture borrows and uses the achievements of many sciences: cybernetics, computer science, information theory, mathematics, database design theory and a number of other disciplines. An integral part of information culture is knowledge of information technology and the ability to apply it in practice.
Relatively recently, another new information technology has appeared - virtual reality.
Virtual reality (VR) is a highly developed form of computer simulation that allows the user to immerse themselves in an artificial world and directly act in it using special sensory devices that associate their movements with audiovisual effects.
In this case, the visual, auditory, tactile and motor sensations of the user are replaced by their imitation generated by the computer.
The characteristic features of virtual reality are:
- modeling in real time;
- imitation of the environment with a high degree of realism;
- the ability to influence the environment and have feedback at the same time.
A kind of virtual reality can be called a computer game.
Computer game (Computer game) - a game built using the multimedia capabilities of a computer.
A computer game is defined by an algorithm that describes the process of passing it. Computer games are divided into business, developing, educational and entertaining.
In the book “The Third Wave” (under the name of which the information or post-industrial society stands here), Toffler, considering the new characteristics of everyday life that have appeared, notes that in the information society there is a revision of the basic principles of organizing the life of society (or, as he says, “revision of the code of civilization ").
The civilization of industrial society was based on six principles:
1) synchronization;
2) specialization;
3) standardization;
4) concentration;
5) maximization;
6) centralization.
All of them collapse in the information society and are replaced by others that make up the features of the information society:
1) Synchronization. Synchronized with the rhythms of production, the mechanized rhythm of life is replaced by social rhythms - the rhythms of activity not related to the production of things. Social activity itself is becoming more diverse, and its rhythms are also diversifying.
The main types of social activity are those associated with the production of information, in particular, the role of science and education, which feed the development of new technologies, is greatly increasing.
2) Specialization. The production of information is becoming a new way of creating social wealth. This method is based not on physical strength, but on the mental abilities of a person, and they develop in the process of education.
Education in the information society is subject to new requirements, due to the fact that in production now the change of technology is happening very quickly, new types of labor appear, and the old ones disappear completely. In this regard, there is a need to transfer labor resources from one industry to another.
Who can quickly switch from one job to another? - Someone who is not a narrow specialist, but has a good fundamental education. Therefore, a characteristic feature of the labor market in the information society is its despecialization and high educational level.
Toffler makes very curious remarks about the new social role knowledge. AT industrial society wealth was expressed in the form of capital (money), in the informational form, wealth acquires a new, intangible form - the form of symbolic capital, or information (knowledge). If the industrial society was a society of mass production of durable goods, then the information society, according to Toffler, will be a society of mass production of knowledge.
Knowledge how capital is radically different from money capital: they are:
a) inexhaustible;
b) available to an infinite number of users.
Even money, which was a unit of exchange in an industrial society, in the information society takes the form of information, becomes electronic money - credit cards, the use of which occurs with the help of a computer.
Electronic money is becoming more and more popular. In 1990, there were more than 187 million credit card holders in the world, today, thanks to the inclusion of Russia in the global electronic banking network, their number has increased significantly.
Electronic money - this is, first of all, security in settlements, as well as convenience, ensuring the speed of concluding a major transaction.
Over the past three decades, the term "electronic money" has become widespread, both in foreign and domestic economic practice. There are many scientific works devoted to various aspects of the development of electronic money.
Electronic money refers to both non-cash money and cash. Initially, electronic money in domestic science was understood as new means of payment based on the use of computers.
One of the first to use the term "electronic money" was V.M. Usoskin. In Western circles, the so-called technological approach to the definition of electronic money prevails.
By definition of the well-known Bank for International Settlements, electronic money is a stored value or prepaid products, where a record of the funds or value available to the consumer is stored on a technical device owned by the consumer.
Electronic money (Electronic money - E-money) - in a broad sense - a form of organization of money circulation in the association of information networks.
In a narrow sense - digital money.
digital money(Digitalcash) is an electronic analogue of cash. Digital money can be bought, it is stored electronically in special devices and is at the disposal of the buyer.
Smart cards or special computer systems are used as storage devices.
smart card (Smart-card; Chipcard; Integratedcircuitcard (IC) - a credit card with a built-in microprocessor, which has a high level of protection and the ability to conduct multi-currency payments.
Cash cards are used to exchange electronic money for cash.
cash card(Cash card) - a bank card used to receive cash from cash machines.
Non-cash payment for goods, works, services is carried out by means of a payment card.
Payment card (Charge card) - a plastic card that provides the person using it with the possibility of basic cash payment for goods or services.
There are also discount cards.
Discount card(Discount card) - a special card issued by a commercial organization that provides a discount on the price of goods.
Through discount cards:
- purchases are encouraged; or
- events are stimulated: marriage, anniversaries, etc.
There are other cards, but I have named the most common ones.
3) Standardization. In the information society, there is a tendency towards individualization in everything.
4) Concentration. The principle of concentration of production, which led to the concentration of the population in large cities, will be replaced in the information society by the principle of the optimal combination of large and small, because the main production - the production of knowledge - is not tied to sources of fossil resources.
Computers can be brought anywhere in the world, from anywhere you can enter the information network and become a participant in the production of knowledge (write a book, calculate a project, draw up a report, and so on).
5) Maximization. The principle of maximization, which led to the construction of gigantic plants and factories, huge research institutes, will be replaced (and has already begun to change) by the principle of creating temporary teams to solve special problems. These teams will be able to set a convenient mode of work for themselves.
6) Centralization. The principle of centralization will be replaced by the principle of decentralization and deurbanization (from the Latin urbs - city) - a decrease in the role of cities in public life, since the need for the existence of huge cities (megacities) disappears.
Toffler also notes that in the socio-political sphere and in the field of international economics, information technologies open up completely unprecedented prospects.
Currently, there are all prerequisites for:
1) creating a global economy (the United Europe became the first step in this direction);
2) solutions to social problems.
The openness of information makes a person stronger, and state power more dependent on citizens. Telecommunication networks create opportunities for the direct participation of all citizens in government, which avoids the adoption of important government decisions, ignoring the interests of citizens or even their minority.
Of course, all the optimistic forecasts that sound in the theory of the information society have as their premise a revision on the scale of the whole of mankind of attitudes towards the goals and objectives of production.
Production must be put at the service of vital interests, and not war. It should develop taking into account the global problems facing, all people of the information society should be characterized by a high level of environmental consciousness.
The main question, the solution of which will determine the development of production, should not be the question “how?”, but the question “why?”.
It is believed that Western countries have already entered the information society, Russia, like all developing countries, is on its threshold.
In his other book, Futurshock, Toffler notes the already manifest features of the new society: the too rapid variability of life, the associated sense of instability of everything that happens, and notes the new problems caused by this, which he calls the word "futurshock". “Transience, novelty and diversity are the hallmarks of the future that shock us,” Toffler wrote. "Futurshock" literally means "future shock". According to Toffler, it manifests itself in the violation of decision-making processes.
People can no longer use the recipes for life created by past generations, they have to create their own.
The ongoing changes concern not only the production activities of people, but also their personal lives, human relations. Permanent relationships (friends, family) become a luxury.
For example, the family has always been a shock absorber, an island of stability. But she is also changing, and no one can say what will happen to her tomorrow.
The family is destroyed
1) new technologies of birth - they change the attitude towards motherhood and fatherhood: mother and father may no longer be the only or unknown ones, or in general - only the mother (cartoon mice, cloning);
2) mobility in pursuit of work;
3) increase in life expectancy: love passes due to unequal development.
Next, we will consider the interaction of the information society with another socially important political institution - the authorities.
2.7. Information society and power
The management of the information society is carried out on the basis of the powers of authority by the system of state bodies.
Power is information not speaking at all. It is those people who can listen effectively and are able to extract valuable information from what they hear and have power.
The famous English statesman and political figure F. Chesterfield said in this regard: “By listening to a person, we instill self-respect in him.”
One of the most meaningful classifications of power is its division in accordance with resources:
- economic,
- social,
- spiritual and informational,
- coercive (political in the narrow sense).
economic power is control over economic resources, ownership of values.
social power involves the distribution of statuses, benefits, privileges.
Spiritual and informational power- this is power over people, carried out with the help of scientific knowledge and information (preparation of decisions, influence on consciousness, including manipulation).
Coercive Power relies on power resources and means control over people through the threat or use of violence (a sign of political power).
As we see from the definition of spiritual and informational power, information is also a tool for managing the modern information society.
In the United States, back in 1966, the Freedom of Information Act was passed. The essence of the law is given below.
The Freedom of Information Act of 1966 (FOIA) - in the United States - a law according to which all US federal agencies must provide citizens with free access to all available information, except for that related to national defense, law enforcement, financial and personal documents.
Subsequently, new technologies appeared in the information sphere that are directly related to information, the economy and other important areas of life.
Information sphere(Information sphere) according to the legislation of the Russian Federation - the sphere of activity of subjects associated with the creation, transformation and consumption of information.
The information sphere requires an information environment.
Information environment(formationenvironment, iformationsocietiesenvironment) - a set of technical and software tools for storing, processing and transmitting information, as well as socio-economic and cultural conditions for the implementation of informatization processes.
In the information sphere, even e-government, e-taxes, Internet voting, and much more have appeared.
Let's take a closer look at each of these technologies.
e-government (Electronicgovernment - e-Government) - a public administration system based on electronic means of processing, transmitting and disseminating information.
Electronic taxes(Electronics taxes - e-Taxes) - a technology for processing and transmitting tax statements online.
Internet voting(Internet vote) - voting using the Internet environment. In Internet voting, the voter receives an electronic ballot on a certain website and votes. The authenticity of the ballot is guaranteed by means of a digital signature.
In this regard, the authorities made it easier for their fellow citizens to perform certain actions prescribed by law, such as voting or paying taxes.
The appearance of handling electronic money has led to the emergence of information crime.
Information crime- unlawful actions in the information sphere that violate the rights of an individual, organization or state established by law and cause them moral harm or material damage.
But how to protect information from misuse, how to protect information from information crime?
For this, a special information legislation was developed.
Information legislation(Information legislation) - a set of laws, regulations and other forms of legal regulation in the field of circulation and production of information and the use of information technologies.
Such legislation exists in the Russian Federation. An example is the Federal Law No. 24-F3 No. “On Information, Informatization and Information Protection” dated January 25, 1995.
Just as the Russian legislation provides for the freedom of the individual, so the information legislation has its own, informational freedom of the individual.
Information freedom of the individual- human right:
- receive information necessary for his life, professional activity and development;
- to express their point of view about certain natural or social phenomena;
- share information with other people.
Information here means any information, except for that which is a state secret of the country.
In order to educate cultural professional users in your country, it is necessary to instill in them computer literacy.
Computer literacy(Computer literacy) implies possession of a sufficient set of knowledge and skills to work on a computer.
To achieve these goals, at present, educational institutions, including secondary educational institutions, have introduced subjects for the study of information technology, where future potential information users are taught various computer programs, shells, and the like.
2.8. Computerization of modern society
The process of development of the information society begins with its computerization.
Computerization(Computerization) - the process of introducing computers that provide automation of information processes and technologies in various areas of human activity.
The purpose of computerization is to improve the quality of life of people by increasing productivity and facilitating their working conditions.
Along with computerization, there is a more specific concept of home computerization.
Home computerization(Home computerisation) - the process of equipping households with computer devices. In the Russian Federation, home computerization is an element of the state policy of informatization, focused on meeting the needs of the population for information and knowledge directly at home.
It can satisfy the needs thanks to special search engines.
Information retrieval system (Information retrieval system) - a system that performs the following functions:
Storage of large amounts of information;
- fast search of the required information;
- adding, deleting and changing stored information;
- output of information in a human-friendly form.
Distinguish:
- automated (coputerised);
- bibliographic (reference);
- dialogue (online);
- documentary and factographic information retrieval systems.
Search system (Search engine) - on the Internet - a special website on which the user, upon a given request, can receive links to sites that match this request.
The search engine consists of three components:
-1- search robot;
-2- system index;
-3- programs that:
a) handles the user's request,
b) finds documents in the index that meet the query criteria,
c) displays a list of found documents in descending order of relevance.
How can a society be divided according to interests? different groups(subcultures), so in the information society there is a division into various subcultures.
Subculture(Subculture, from lat.Sub - under + Cultura - education) - a system of values, behaviors, lifestyle of any social group, which is an independent holistic education within the dominant culture.
Subculture arises as a positive or negative reaction to the dominant culture and social structure in society among different social strata and age groups.
Along with the division of society, the reverse process takes place - merging. In the information society, information groups merge into one community with the help of a network, i.e. Society is becoming a network.
network society(Network society) - a society in which a significant part of information interactions is carried out using information networks. Moreover, the composition of this society is constantly replenished with new users.
The main factor increasing the number of users is, of course, the information need of the population of the entire planet.
information need(Information need) - a need that arises when the goal facing the user in the course of his professional activity or in his social and everyday practice cannot be achieved without the involvement of additional information.
Additional information in this context refers to the World Wide Web.
The World Wide Web (WorldWideWeb - WWW, Web) - the main service on the Internet, which allows you to access information on any servers connected to the network. The World Wide Web is organized on the principles of hypermedia.
Under hypermedia(Hypermedia) refers to the technology of presenting information in the form of relatively small blocks associated with each other.
Of course, the World Wide Web allows you to access any information on any servers connected to the network. But in order to get information using the web, you need a device with access to the Internet.
Internet (Internet) - a global information network, parts of which are logically interconnected with each other through a single address space based on the TCP / IP protocol.
The Internet consists of many interconnected computer networks and provides remote access to computers, e-mail, bulletin boards, databases and discussion groups.
A device is a computer.
A computer (Electronic computer - COMPUTER, Computer) in the broad sense of the word, a programmable electronic device capable of processing data and performing calculations, as well as performing other character manipulation tasks.
There are two main classes of computers:
- digital computers(computers) processing data in the form of numerical binary codes;
- analog computers that process continuously changing physical quantities that are analogues of calculated quantities.
In a narrower (personal) sense Personal Computer (PC, Personalcomputer - PC) - a universal computer designed for individual use.
Typically, personal computers are designed on the basis of the principle of open architecture and are based on microprocessors.
home computer(Home computer) - a household personal computer designed for use in homes and aimed at non-professional users.
A computer is a thing that has a certain value. Therefore, in order to join the information society, it is necessary to purchase a computer.
Any computer consists of two components:
one). Hardware;
2). Software.
Hardware (Hardware)- a complex of electronic, electrical and mechanical devices that make up a system or network.
Hardware includes:
- computers and logical devices;
- external devices and diagnostic equipment;
- power equipment, batteries and accumulators.
Software(Software) - a set of programs: - providing data processing or transmission;
- intended for repeated use and application by different users.
According to the types of functions performed, the software is divided into system, application and instrumental.
Software - according to GOST 19781-90 - a set of programs for an information processing system and policy documents required for their operation.
Both hardware and software are interconnected. One doesn't work without the other. Each "element of the chain" is necessary, and performs its functions.
The process of acquiring computers by the population is directly related to the social inequality of modern society.
2.9. Information inequality of modern society
Social inequality (Social inequality) - a form of social differentiation in which individuals, social groups, strata, classes are at different levels of the vertical social hierarchy and have unequal life chances and opportunities to meet needs.
Consider three main social classes:
one). The rich (i.e. the elite);
2). Middle class;
3). Poor.
All these three social classes make up the concept of society in the broadest sense of the word.
Society(Society) - a set of people:
- United by historically established forms of their relationship and interaction in order to meet their needs;
- characterized by:
1) stability;
2) integrity;
3) self-development;
4) the presence of special social values and norms that determine their behavior.
Society is a human community, the specificity of which is the relationship of people to each other. Society is a product of human interaction.
Society is an integral system of social institutions that perform the functions of regulating economic, political, legal, moral and other relations.
According to many scientists, philosophers, political scientists and politicians, the basis of society was unanimously recognized as the middle class of classical activities, the middle class was unanimously recognized _______________________________________________ the middle class.
It is the middle class that subtly feels any changes in the state and is subject to it to change the situation, if necessary.
Middle class(Middle class) - a class that occupies an intermediate position between the main classes in the system of social stratification.
The middle class is characterized by a heterogeneous position, contradictory interests, consciousness and political behavior.
Distinguish between the old middle class and the new middle class.
old middle class- medium and small owners: small entrepreneurs, traders, artisans, freelancers, small and medium farmers, owners of small manufacturing firms.
New middle class- employees, managers, engineers, professional mental workers, who do not own the means of production and live by selling their labor.
Next, let's compare the ratio of rich, middle class and poor in the Russian Federation and the United States. Since this ratio is constantly changing, we will study the general view of the picture.
Since acquiring a computer and learning how to work on it in the status of a professional requires constant study and retraining, because. scientific progress does not stand still, then the conclusion follows that to join the information society, basically, only the rich and middle class can do it.
In connection with the above, we analyze the situation.
The structure of US society is usually depicted as a quadrangle.
Table No. 1 shows that the middle class is the basis of American society and makes up approximately 40% of the entire society, while the poor and the rich each make up 30% of the entire US society.
Based on these data, we can conclude that at the moment the middle class (40%) and the rich (30%) can actually become an information society.
In total, 70% of US citizens come out. It should be noted that the figure is very high.
The structure of society in the Russian Federation is usually depicted as a pyramid.
Table No. 2 shows the ratio of classes in modern society in our country. It can be seen with the naked eye that the basis of society in Russia is made up of such classes as the middle class and the class of the poor. So, the poor - 45%, the middle class - 45%, the remaining 10% is the elite.
It follows from this that no more than 55% of the entire population of the Russian Federation (45% of the middle class + 10% of the rich) can consider themselves an information society.
Let's compare the indicators obtained during the analysis.
The information society in the United States is 70% of the citizens, while in Russia this society can be characterized with 55% of the citizens of the Russian Federation.
Next, we calculate the number of the information society in the US and the Russian Federation in specific numbers, since the number of people in the countries we compare is unequal.
According to Table No. 3 about Let us limit what part of the total number of the population can be considered informational in these countries. For each of the countries we compare, we will take as a basis the population (according to data for 2006) - 100%.
We get that the number of the information society in the Russian Federation is about 80 million people (145 >< 0,55 = 79,75).
In the United States, however, the number of the information society is much higher, at approximately 190 million people (271 >< 0,7 = 189,7).
So, the information society and potentially ready to become one, in the US is more than two times (2.38) more than in Russia.
The obtained negative result was influenced, first of all, by two factors (problems):
1. Reduction of the population (in 2006, the permanent population of Russia decreased by 561.2 thousand people, or by 0.39%);
2. Half of the country's population living below the poverty line.
As for the first problem, in recent years the Government of the Russian Federation has been actively trying to avoid a crisis in the country caused by these two problems. Various social programs are being created, including material incentives (maternity capital) for mothers for the birth of a second child.
It is not yet possible to track the change in the population and their social quality component, the above social programs were introduced recently.
Unfortunately, the question remains open regarding the second social problem, despite the fact that our country currently occupies a leading position in terms of prices, ahead of New York, Tokyo and London.
3. CONCLUSION
It is obvious that at present we are entering the information era, where the main commodity will be information in its various manifestations.
Receiving undeniable benefits, such as the availability of information, its rapid dissemination, the free exchange of data between people, etc., one cannot but take into account the increased and changed requirements for a person as a member of society.
In the period of transition to the information society, in addition to solving the problems described above, it is necessary to prepare a person for the rapid perception and processing of large amounts of information, mastering modern means, methods and technology of work. In addition, new working conditions give rise to the dependence of the awareness of one person on the information acquired by other people.
Now it is not enough to be able to master and accumulate information on your own, but you need to learn such a technology for working with information when decisions are prepared and made on the basis of collective knowledge. This suggests that a person must have a certain level of culture in handling information.
It should be noted that the problem of informatization of society is discussed today by scientists more and more widely. Since obtaining information about what is happening in the country and in the world no longer requires direct communication between people, a person will be increasingly isolated from society, subjected to the illusion of independence from it.
It is necessary to cultivate a sense of responsibility of each person for what is happening in the world, achieving a clear understanding of the interdependence of all people. This task relates, first of all, to the education system and the mass media.
The nature of changes in the social structure predicted by scientists under the influence of informatization in the above areas is as follows:
The number of social groups will grow, which will naturally lead to a decrease in their average size. Modern information technologies provide a real opportunity for a more accurate, operational consideration of people's interests.
The qualitative parameters of social groups will improve in terms of such parameters as the level of education, intelligence, etc.
The new percentages between social groups identified in society according to various criteria will probably look like this:
1) the proportion of people engaged in intellectual work - intellectuals - will increase.
The emergence of a special class of "intellectuals" is predicted. For those who do not want or cannot work intellectually, work in the field of information services, which, as previously noted, should account for more than 50% in the information society in the employment structure, or in the sphere of material production.
2) the number of able-bodied people will increase. Older people will be able to continue working even after retirement, as the working age bar will rise (the body ages before the brain).
The pyramidal socio-economic structure will increasingly give way to a network-like (mosaic) structure. The structure of the network more closely matches the new information technology.
American researchers note that "the convergence of changing social and personal values with new technology and energy-economic needs makes the formation of a mosaic society essentially inevitable."
One of the highest places in the hierarchy of values (along with innovation) is the autonomy of the individual, which is not typical of a traditional society at all.
Personality is realized only through belonging to a particular corporation, being an element in a strictly certain system corporate connections. If a person is not included in any corporation, he is not a person.
In a technogenic civilization, a special type of personal autonomy arises: a person can change his corporate connections, since he is not rigidly attached to them, he can and is able to very flexibly build his relationships with people, immerse himself in different social communities in different cultural traditions.
Modern science and technical creativity draw fundamentally new types of objects into the field of human activity, the development of which requires new strategies. It's about about objects that are self-developing systems characterized by synergistic effects. Their development is always accompanied by the passage of the system through special conditions instability, when small random impacts can lead to the emergence of new structures, new levels of organization of the system, which affect the already established levels and transform them.
For free orientation in the information flow, a person must have an information culture as one of the components of a common culture. The growing power of the flow of information exchange between people has given rise to new type a culture in which everything is subject to the need for classification, unification in order to maximize compression and increase efficiency in transmission from person to person, whether in person or through the media.
There is the problem of human life and activity in the new society, the form of its existence. Will he live in the "Electronic Cottage" as some futurists predicted, or will the form of life not change dramatically.
Philosopher Alvin Toffler, for example, predicts the birth of the "prosumer" - consumer and producer rolled into one.
During the “first wave” period, most people consumed what they produced themselves. You can call them "consumers". The Industrial Revolution separated the functions of production and consumption, thus giving rise to the producer and the consumer.
At present, the boundary separating the producer from the consumer is becoming less and less clear. The importance of the “prosumer” is growing... In a word, the “prosumer”, who was the dominant figure in the “first wave” society, is returning to society. Of course, it will be a “prosumer”, equipped with modern technology, working in an electronic cottage and leading a modern lifestyle.”
Everyone will have to rethink their life position as an individual, it is clear that there will be a redistribution of life values.
Our future largely depends on which direction modern society direct the development of scientific and technological progress.
4. REFERENCES:
