GIS which are open systems. Geographic information systems

19.06.2019 Interesting

GIS (DoubleGIS Barnaul)

It is quite difficult to give an unambiguous, brief definition of this phenomenon. Geographic Information System (GIS)- this is an opportunity for a new look at the world around us. Without generalizations and images, GIS is a modern computer technology for mapping and analyzing objects in the real world, as well as events occurring on our planet. This technology combines traditional database operations, such as query and statistical analysis, with the benefits of rich visualization and geographic (spatial) analysis that a map provides. These capabilities distinguish GIS from other information systems and provide unique opportunities for its use in a wide range of tasks related to the analysis and forecast of phenomena and events in the surrounding world, with understanding and highlighting the main factors and causes, as well as their possible consequences, with planning strategic decisions and the ongoing consequences of the actions taken. Mapping and geographic analysis are not entirely new. However, GIS technology provides a new, more modern, more efficient, convenient and faster approach to analyzing problems and solving problems facing humanity in general, and a specific organization or group of people in particular. It automates the analysis and forecast procedure. Before the use of GIS, only a few possessed the art of summarizing and fully analyzing geographic information in order to make informed optimal decisions based on modern approaches and tools. GIS is now a multi-million dollar industry involving hundreds of thousands of people around the world. GIS is taught in schools, colleges and universities. This technology is used in almost all spheres of human activity - be it in the analysis of such global problems as overpopulation, land pollution, reduction of forest land, natural disasters, or in solving particular problems, such as finding the best route between points, selecting the optimal location for a new office, searching houses at his address, laying a pipeline in the area, various municipal tasks. Based on territorial coverage, there are global GIS, subcontinental GIS, national GIS, often with state status, regional GIS, subregional GIS and local GIS.

GIS differ in the subject area of information modeling, for example, urban GIS, or municipal GIS, MGIS (urban GIS), environmental GIS (environmental GIS), etc.; Among them, land information systems received a special name, as they are particularly widespread. The problem orientation of GIS is determined by the tasks it solves (scientific and applied), including resource inventory (including cadastre), analysis, assessment, monitoring, management and planning, and decision support. Integrated GIS, IGIS (integrated GIS, IGIS) combine the functionality of GIS and digital image processing systems (remote sensing data) in a single integrated environment.

Multiscale, or scale-independent GIS (multiscale GIS) are based on multiple, or multiscale representations of spatial objects (multiple representation, multiscale representation), providing graphical or cartographic reproduction of data at any of the selected scale levels based on a single data set with the highest spatial resolution . Spatio-temporal GIS operates with spatio-temporal data. The implementation of geographic information projects (GIS project), the creation of a GIS in the broad sense of the word, includes the stages of: pre-project research (feasibility study), including the study of user requirements (user requirements) and the functionality of the GIS software used, feasibility study, correlation assessment “costs/profits” (costs/benefits); GIS system design (GIS designing), including the pilot-project stage, GIS development; its testing on a small territorial fragment, or test area, prototyping, or creating a prototype, or prototype; GIS implementation; operation and use. The scientific, technical, technological and applied aspects of the design, creation and use of GIS are studied by geoinformatics.

History of GIS

Initial period (late 1950s - early 1970s)

Research of fundamental possibilities, border areas of knowledge and technology, development of empirical experience, first major projects and theoretical work.

The emergence of electronic computers (computers) in the 50s.
The advent of digitizers, plotters, graphic displays and other peripheral devices in the 60s.
Creation of software algorithms and procedures for graphically displaying information on displays and using plotters.
Creation of formal methods of spatial analysis.
Creation of database management software.

Period of government initiatives (early 1970s - early 1980s)

Government support for GIS stimulated the development of experimental work in the field of GIS based on the use of databases on street networks:

Automated navigation systems.
Urban waste and garbage removal systems.
Movement of vehicles in emergency situations, etc.

Commercial development period (early 1980s - present)

A wide market for a variety of software, the development of desktop GIS, the expansion of their scope of application through integration with non-spatial databases, the emergence of network applications, the emergence of a significant number of non-professional users, systems that support individual data sets on individual computers, pave the way for systems that support corporate and distributed geodatabases.

User period (late 1980s - present)

Increased competition among commercial producers of geoinformation technology services gives advantages to GIS users; the availability and “openness” of software allows the use and even modification of programs, the emergence of user “clubs”, teleconferences, geographically separated but related user groups, an increased need for geodata, the beginning of the formation of the global geographic information infrastructure.

How GIS works

A GIS stores information about the real world as a set of thematic layers that are aggregated based on geographic location. This simple but very flexible approach has proven its value in solving a variety of real-world problems: tracking the movement of vehicles and materials, detailed mapping of real-life conditions and planned activities, and modeling global atmospheric circulation. All geographic information contains information about spatial location, whether it is a reference to geographic or other coordinates, or references to an address, postal code, electoral or census district, land or forest identifier, road name, etc. When such links are used to automatically determine the location or locations of the feature(s), a procedure called geocoding is used. With its help, you can quickly determine and see on the map where the object or phenomenon you are interested in is located, such as the house where your friend lives or the organization you need is located, where an earthquake or flood occurred, which route is easier and faster to get to the point you need or at home.

Vector and raster models

GIS can work with two significantly different types of data - vector and raster. In a vector model, information about points, lines, and polygons is encoded and stored as a set of X,Y coordinates. The location of a point (point object), for example a borehole, is described by a pair of coordinates (X,Y). Linear features such as roads, rivers, or pipelines are stored as sets of X,Y coordinates. Polygon features, such as river watersheds, land parcels, or service areas, are stored as a closed set of coordinates. The vector model is particularly useful for describing discrete objects and is less suitable for describing continuously changing properties such as soil types or object accessibility. The raster model is optimal for working with continuous properties. A raster image is a set of values for individual elementary components (cells), it is similar to a scanned map or picture. Both models have their advantages and disadvantages. Modern GIS can work with both vector and raster models.

GIS layers

All cartographic information in GIS is organized in the form of layers. Layers are the very first level of abstraction in GIS. When working with GIS, we are required to divide our existing data into layers. Each layer contains objects of a certain type, united by common characteristics. Working in GIS, we can connect and disconnect layers that interest us, or change the order in which they are displayed. Layers are of the following types:

Spot

Point layers contain features that can be abstracted to a point, such as a well or a city. For the sake of clarity of understanding, even a city can be represented as a dot.

Linear

These objects can be abstracted to a broken or smooth line, such as rivers, roads, or pipelines.

Polygonal or area

Objects of this type are represented as being located within a certain polygon, for example, license areas.

Area objects can consist of several contours. This is necessary if you want to represent a polygon with a hole inside. The figure shows an example of a regular polygon and a polygon consisting of two contours.

The last point of a polygon must always coincide with the first point. Whether this is right or wrong, this is the way it is in geographic information systems. Thus, a polygon cannot have fewer than four points. If the polygon has zero area, that is, it degenerates, then it must be deleted. The polygon should also not have self-intersections. Such shortcomings can later lead to serious errors in calculations and should therefore be avoided.

Images

Raster graphics linked to geographic coordinates, such as satellite images or scanned maps.

Mesh models

These are structural maps and parameter maps. Initially, such models were based on a rectangular grid, where the Z (parameter) value was indicated at the grid nodes.

Now the structure of such models is often more complex, but traditionally they continue to be called meshes or grids. Modern grids can contain faults, refinement areas, or be based on splines. The meaning of grid models remains the same: a continuous representation of a parameter over a certain area.

A spline mesh differs from a regular mesh in that its surface is perfectly smooth, which is more natural for most models. Fracture meshes contain additional segments to simulate a smooth fracture. On a conventional mesh model, the gap appears in steps. Grid models are also called contour maps.

Special types of layers

These five types of layers are standard for any professional GIS, but in addition to them, there may be other, special types of data determined by the scope of the system. For example, these could be faults (for modeling fault meshes), raster maps (for representing very large raster images), 3D models (for 3D reservoir models).

GIS Data Tables

Line points and polygons have attribute data tables for their features.

Each feature on the map has a corresponding row in the data table. Using the data table, you can find and sort objects, highlight them on the map by attributes, or view the attributes of selected objects. An attribute table allows you to search for objects, sort them, select them by conditions, group them, create filters, and carry out calculations. An attribute table turns a GIS into a database in which you can perform data analysis or data management using advanced GIS tools. Without attribute tables, geographic information systems would not make sense, and the maps in them would not be maps, but simply drawings, like drawings in CorelDraw or Paint.

Points within lines and polygons also have their own attribute tables. For example, seismic profiles can be loaded along with data on picked horizons and used to construct maps in isolines. The data table supports the concept of selected objects; such rows in the table are marked in a different color. Selected objects are also displayed slightly differently on the map. Object selection is very often used in data analysis. Objects can be selected both in the table and on the map, as well as according to specified conditions.

Formation of layers

A very important topic is the correct formation of the layer structure. The usefulness of any database, including GIS, is highly dependent on the correct structure of the data. You can even formulate the following: the usefulness of the database is directly proportional to its correct organization and order in the data. If the data in the database contains a large number of errors or is incorrectly organized, then this can negate all the advantages of the database as such. For this reason, the ability to correctly structure information is important. For example, if you are loading seismic data, then it would be correct to combine all seismic parties in one layer, and not create several layers grouping them by region or area. It is better to adhere to this rule: one data type - one table (or one layer). On the other hand, it is better to place dissimilar objects in different layers, even if they are united by a common theme. So it is better to divide roads and railways into two layers, and then place them in the “Transport routes” group.

Coordinates

Everyone knows that the earth is round, and the map is flat, and the surface of the ball cannot be turned onto a plane without deformation. For this reason, projections are used in cartography. Projections are rules and formulas for transforming one coordinates into others. A commonly used conversion is from spherical (geographic) coordinates to rectangular coordinates (map coordinates). Projections can be equal area or equiangular, that is, they preserve the area of objects or angles. Sometimes a projection can distort both, minimizing distortion altogether. For our country, the standard transformation system is the “42nd year” coordinate system. The “42nd year” system divides the territory of the globe into 60 zones, 6 degrees each. The Tyumen region, for example, is located within the 12th, 13th and 14th zones. "42nd year" is an equal area projection. GIS are designed in such a way that they can store data in one coordinate system and display it in another. Therefore, it is necessary not to get confused with which coordinate system the data is stored in and in which it is displayed on the map. To reduce confusion with projections, Isoline only supports two source data options:

Rectangular coordinates (any arbitrary coordinates to which no transformations are applied).
Geographic coordinates (degrees, minutes, seconds, which, when displayed on a map, are converted into some projection).

Here are options for displaying the same area in different coordinate systems and projections.

The projection is "polyconical". Real coordinates are degrees, displayed coordinates are degrees.

Projection not set. Real coordinates are "polyconical", displayed coordinates are rectangular.

Projection not set. Real coordinates are degrees, displayed coordinates are rectangular.

The projection is "polyconical". Real coordinates are "polyconical", displayed coordinates are rectangular.

As you can see from the pictures, the top two suit us quite well, but the third and fourth do not. The third drawing, in fact, is quite correct, but the projection is not indicated, and therefore we see the image “as is”, in degrees. In the fourth picture, we tried to display a polygon whose data is not degrees in a “polyconical” projection and the system did not understand us. From this we can draw the following conclusion: it is impossible to set a projection for rectangular coordinates, since in this case the transformation formulas are applied to them a second time, and the image turns out to be incorrect.

It is also necessary to take into account the fact that a straight line drawn in one coordinate system is not a straight line in another system, and the areas of objects may differ, even if the projections are equal in area.

Rectangular coordinates

"polyconical", without display adjustments.

Mollweide coordinate system.

polyconical", with display adjustments.

Therefore, if you need exact line lengths, exact areas, and accurate display, then you need to use special system tools.

Problems that GIS solves

A general purpose GIS typically performs five data activities (tasks), among other things: input, manipulation, management, query and analysis, and visualization.

Enter

To be used in a GIS, data must be converted into a suitable digital format. The process of converting data from paper maps into computer files is called digitization. In modern GIS, this process can be automated using scanner technology, which is especially important for large projects, or, for small jobs, data can be entered using a digitizer. Many data have already been translated into formats that are directly understandable by GIS packages.

Manipulation

Often, to complete a specific project, existing data must be further modified to meet the requirements of your system. For example, geographic information may be at different scales (street centerlines are at a scale of 1:100,000, census tract boundaries are at a scale of 1:50,000, and residential properties are at a scale of 1:10,000). For joint processing and visualization, it is more convenient to present all data on a single scale. GIS technology provides different ways to manipulate spatial data and extract the data needed for a specific task.

Control

In small projects, geographic information may be stored as regular files. But with an increase in the volume of information and an increase in the number of users, it is more effective to use database management systems (DBMS) for storing, structuring and managing data, or special computer tools for working with integrated data sets (databases). In GIS, it is most convenient to use a relational structure, in which data is stored in tabular form. In this case, common fields are used to link tables. This simple approach is quite flexible and is widely used in many GIS and non-GIS applications.

Query and analysis

If you have GIS and geographic information, you will be able to receive answers to simple questions (Who is the owner of this land plot? At what distance from each other are these objects located? Where is this industrial zone located?) and more complex queries that require additional analysis (Where are there places for construction new house? What is the main type of soil under the spruce forests? How will the construction of a new road affect traffic?). Queries can be set either by simply clicking on a specific object or using advanced analytical tools. Using GIS, you can identify and set patterns for searching, and play out scenarios like “what will happen if...”. Modern GIS have many powerful tools for analysis, among which two are the most significant: proximity analysis and overlay analysis. To analyze the proximity of objects relative to each other, GIS uses a process called buffering. It helps answer questions like: How many houses are within 100 m of this body of water? How many customers live within 1 km of this store? What is the share of oil produced from wells located within 10 km from the management building of this oil and gas production unit? The overlay process involves the integration of data located in different thematic layers. In the simplest case, this is a mapping operation, but in a number of analytical operations, data from different layers is physically combined. Overlay, or spatial aggregation, allows, for example, the integration of data on soils, slope, vegetation and land tenure with land tax rates.

Visualization

For many types of spatial operations, the end result is a representation of the data in the form of a map or graph. A map is a very effective and informative way of storing, presenting and transmitting geographic (spatially referenced) information. Previously, maps were created to last for centuries. GIS provides amazing new tools that expand and advance the art and science of cartography. With its help, the visualization of the maps themselves can be easily supplemented with reporting documents, three-dimensional images, graphs and tables, photographs and other means, for example, multimedia.

Technologies related to GIS

GIS is closely related to a number of other types of information systems. Its main difference lies in the ability to manipulate and analyze spatial data. Although there is no single generally accepted classification of information systems, the following description should help distance GIS from desktop mapping, CAD, remote sensing, database management systems (DBMS) and technology. global positioning (GPS).

Desktop mapping systems use cartographic representation to organize user interaction with data. In such systems, everything is based on maps; the map is a database. Most desktop mapping systems have limited data management, spatial analysis, and customization capabilities. The corresponding packages work on desktop computers - PC, Macintosh and low-end UNIX workstations.

CAD systems

CAD systems capable of project drawings and plans of buildings and infrastructure. To combine into a single structure, they use a set of components with fixed parameters. They are based on a small number of rules for combining components and have very limited analytical functions. Some CAD systems have been extended to support cartographic representation of data, but, as a rule, the utilities available in them do not allow efficient management and analysis of large spatial databases.

Remote Sensing and GPS

Remote sensing is the art and science of taking measurements of the earth's surface using sensors such as various cameras on board aircraft, global positioning system receivers, or other devices. These sensors collect data in the form of images and provide specialized processing, analysis and visualization capabilities for the resulting images. Due to the lack of sufficiently powerful data management and analysis tools, the corresponding systems can hardly be classified as real GIS.

Database management systems designed for storing and managing all types of data, including geographic (spatial) data. DBMSs are optimized for such tasks, so many GIS have built-in DBMS support. These systems do not have tools for analysis and visualization similar to GIS.

What GIS can do for you

Perform spatial queries and analysis

GIS's ability to search databases and perform spatial queries has saved many companies millions of dollars. GIS helps reduce the time it takes to respond to customer requests; identify areas suitable for the required activities; identify relationships between various parameters (for example, soils, climate and crop yields); identify locations of power supply breaks. Realtors use GIS to find, for example, all the houses in a certain area that have slate roofs, three rooms and 10-meter kitchens, and then provide more detailed descriptions of these structures. The request can be refined by introducing additional parameters, for example cost parameters. You can get a list of all houses located at a certain distance from a certain highway, forested area or place of work.

Improve integration within the organization

Many organizations using GIS have discovered that one of its main benefits lies in the new opportunities to improve the management of their organization and its resources by geographically aggregating existing data and allowing it to be shared and modified in a coordinated manner across different departments. The ability to share and constantly expand and correct the database by different structural units allows you to increase the efficiency of both each unit and the organization as a whole. Thus, a utility company can clearly plan repair or maintenance work, from obtaining complete information and displaying on a computer screen (or on paper copies) relevant areas, such as water pipes, to automatically identifying residents who will be affected by these works, and notifying them of the timing of expected shutdowns or interruptions in water supply.

Make more informed decisions

GIS, like other information technologies, confirms the well-known adage that better information leads to better decisions. However, GIS is not a tool for making decisions, but a tool that helps speed up and increase the efficiency of the decision-making procedure, providing answers to queries and functions for analyzing spatial data, presenting analysis results in a visual and easy-to-read form. GIS helps, for example, in solving such problems as providing a variety of information at the request of planning authorities, resolving territorial conflicts, choosing optimal (from different points of view and according to different criteria) places for placing objects, etc. The information required for decision-making can be presented in a concise cartographic form with additional textual explanations, graphs and diagrams. The availability of information that is accessible to perception and generalization allows decision-makers to focus their efforts on finding a solution without spending significant time collecting and analyzing the available heterogeneous data. You can quickly consider several solution options and choose the most effective and efficient one.

Creating maps

Maps have a special place in GIS. The process of creating maps in GIS is much simpler and more flexible than traditional manual or automatic mapping methods. It starts with creating a database. The digitization of ordinary paper maps can also be used as a source for obtaining initial data. GIS-based cartographic databases can be continuous (not divided into separate tiles or regions) and not associated with a specific scale. Based on such databases, it is possible to create maps (in electronic form or as hard copies) for any territory, of any scale, with the required load, with its selection and display with the required symbols. At any time, the database can be updated with new data (for example, from other databases), and the existing data can be adjusted as necessary. In large organizations, the created topographic database can be used as a basis by other departments and divisions, while quickly copying data and sending it over local and global networks is possible.

GIS in Russia

The most widely used foreign systems in Russia are: software product ArcGIS companies ESRI, product family GeoMedia corporations Intergraph And MapInfo Professional companies Pitney Bowes MapInfo.

Among domestic developments, the company's GIS Map 2008 program has become widespread CJSC KB "Panorama".

Other software products of domestic and foreign development are also used: GIS INTEGRO, M.G.E. corporations Intergraph(uses MicroStation as graphics core), IndorGIS, STAR-APIC, DoubleGIS , Mappl, Geographer GIS, 4geo etc.

Application of GIS in territorial and economic management

“The scope of GIS is limited only by your imagination”

1. Introduction

Currently, it is difficult to imagine an area of human activity in which a computer would not be used. Computers are used almost everywhere: in art, science, education, medicine, industry, commerce and many other fields. Some areas have been affected by almost total automation, while in others this process is just beginning.
One of the areas of activity where the automation process is just beginning to gain momentum is territory and farm management. To manage the territory, as a rule, GIS is used - geographic information systems or geographic information systems.
In industrialized countries, where attention has been paid to automation issues for a long time, automation of territorial administration is more or less established. As for Russia, this process has started only in certain regions of the country. And then all the capabilities of GIS, as a rule, come down to showing a map or plan of a certain territory.

2. Geographic information system, concept and software

2.1 Concept of GIS

A geographic information system (GIS) is a software and hardware complex that solves problems of storing, displaying, updating and analyzing spatial and attribute information on territorial objects. One of the main functions of GIS is the creation and use of digital (electronic) maps, atlases and other cartographic works. The basis of any information system is data. Data in GIS is divided into spatial, semantic and metadata.
Spatial data is data that describes the location of an object in space. For example, the coordinates of the corner points of a building, represented in the local or any other coordinate system. Semantic (attribute) data – data about the properties of an object. For example, address, cadastral number, number of storeys and other characteristics of the building.
Metadata is data about data. For example, information about who, when and using what source material, information about the object was entered into the system.

GIS were originally created to study natural resources in the mid-1960s, and now there are thousands of GIS in industrialized countries used in economics, politics, ecology, natural resource management and conservation, cadastre, science, education, etc. They integrate cartographic information, remote sensing and environmental monitoring data, statistics and censuses, hydrometeorological observations, expedition materials, drilling results, etc.
Structurally, GIS for territorial management is a centralized database of spatial objects and a tool that provides the ability to store, analyze and process any information related to a particular GIS object, which greatly simplifies the process of using information about territorial objects by interested services and individuals.
It is also worth noting that GIS can (and should) be integrated with any other information system that uses data about territorial objects. For example, a system for automating the activities of a property management committee should use an address plan and a GIS map of land plots in its work. The GIS can also store zones containing rental rate coefficients that can be used in calculating rent.
In the case when a centralized GIS is used, all employees of a local government have the opportunity to obtain regulated access to up-to-date GIS data, while spending much less time searching, analyzing and summarizing them.
GIS are designed to solve scientific and applied problems of inventory, analysis, assessment, forecast and management of the environment and the territorial organization of society.
The basis of GIS is automated mapping systems, and the main sources of information are various geo-images.

2.2 GIS software

The software can be basic and applied. Basic software is the basis for any problem-oriented GIS. The base software provides all the basic functions required by a problem-oriented GIS developer. This software is developed by quite a number of commercial and non-profit organizations. Application software is developed for a specific application and provides solutions to specific narrow problems.
Basic GIS software is currently quite widely available on the market. There are foreign and domestic developments. All software on the market varies in functionality and price. Moreover, functionality and price are directly proportional. Although relatively simple problems can be solved using free Open Source GIS technologies.
The most functional and, accordingly, the most widely used products are those from ESRI. ESRI has developed GIS software to solve a wide range of problems. The product line represents server and desktop applications with different levels of functionality. MapInfo and Itergraph are also widely known.

3. Use of GIS in territory and economic management

Interest in the implementation of GIS in the practice of state and municipal management throughout the world has remained high for many years. In Russia and the CIS countries, projects using GIS are also given quite a lot of attention. And if earlier government bodies (ministries, agencies, etc.) showed great activity in the implementation of such projects, then recently local authorities have also shown serious interest: regional and municipal authorities. This is due to significant changes in legislation that significantly change the economic basis of regional governance. Municipalities are given great opportunities and, at the same time, they are given responsibility for managing land and real estate, maintaining infrastructure, preserving the ecological environment and ensuring the safety of the population.
Geographic information systems have long been widely used to solve problems of state and municipal management. There are many examples of successful and not very successful implementation of GIS in the practice of the relevant authorities. Of course, the effectiveness of using GIS is determined by many factors, and, probably, not only by the choice of software from a particular supplier. However, the very ability to implement the required functions, build a full-fledged information system, integrate it into the existing information infrastructure, implement and provide technical support for solutions, significantly depends on the properties and quality of GIS software.
GIS technology provides the means to display and understand what is in one specific or many locations, providing tools for modeling resources, identifying relationships, processes, dependencies, examples, threats and risks. These capabilities allow you to see what is actually happening and where, measure the size and scope of an event or impact, collaboratively analyze a variety of data, develop plans, and ultimately help decide what steps and actions to take. GIS's ability to integrate spatial and nonspatial data, along with process analysis and modeling capabilities, allows the technology to be used as a common platform for integrating business processes across departments, activities, and disciplines throughout a city or regional government.
Effective management of municipalities and dynamically developing regions requires reliable and up-to-date data on objects and processes on their territory, as well as advanced technologies for accumulating, processing and presenting information. Modern geographic information systems with their developed analytical capabilities make it possible to visually display and comprehend information about specific objects, processes and phenomena in their totality. GIS make it possible to identify relationships and spatial relationships, support the collective use of data and their integration into a single information array.
Digital maps, or a digital cartographic basis with thematic layers, which are the geospatial basis of the GIS, can be connected to databases of real estate, land plots of organizations, monetary valuation of land, engineering structures, urban planning and architectural monuments, information on geology, history of development, etc. The database can also organize the storage of both graphic and all technical, reference and other documentation.
Modern GIS has introduced the possibility of three-dimensional representation of the territory. 3D models of objects, embedded in a 3D landscape, designed on the basis of digital cartographic data and remote sensing materials, improve the quality of visual analysis of the territory and ensure informed decision-making with greater efficiency.

4 Examples of using GIS

Below are examples of possible GIS applications. Only a small part of the possible solutions are described.

4.1 Using GIS in communications management

When using various communication networks, a problem inevitably arises related to the identification of emergency situations and the forecast of its development.

Currently, the following tasks are successfully solved with the help of GIS technologies:
- determining the location of damage to the main cable or pipe based on consumer complaints;
- forecast of further development of the emergency situation;
- resolving the issue of quickly eliminating emergency situations;
- resolving issues regarding the organization of backup electricity, water or heat supply to important infrastructure facilities;
- monitoring the condition of communication network objects and organizing timely repairs or reconstruction

4.2 Use of GIS in traffic management

At the moment, mapping services for tracking traffic congestion are widely known. For example, Yandex-Traffic.
However, with the help of GIS Technologies it is also possible to directly control the organization of traffic. The system is able to automatically change traffic conditions in a certain area based on traffic jam data using technical means. For example, change the switching phases of traffic lights, change the number of traffic lanes, or organize a detour.

4.3 Use of GIS in forest management

GIS has found widespread use in forest management.

The following tasks are successfully solved:
- taking into account the species composition of forest plantations;
- distribution of areas for various types of legal logging;
- organization of forest restoration;
- monitoring the health of the forest;
- assessment of damage from forest fires.

4.4 Public GIS

Currently, various authorities are striving to ensure transparency of their activities for the population. For this purpose, the global Internet is widely used. Currently, resources have begun to appear that allow everyone to get acquainted with a variety of information about the territory.

Of course, such a GIS does not publish data, the distribution of which is limited by current legislation.

4.5 Environmental monitoring of the environment

GIS technologies are widely used to make decisions on the organization of environmental protection measures, as well as to evaluate the effectiveness of these measures.

GIS allows you to simultaneously work with large volumes of data, which makes it possible to assess the degree of impact of an existing or planned hazardous facility on the environment.

4.6 Urban GIS

The very process of creation and the very structural construction of urban planning design documentation obviously testifies to the effectiveness of the use of GIS technologies.
Firstly, since the source data of many organizations, including graphic documents, are usually presented on different cartographic bases and often in the form of diagrams, it is GIS technologies that make it possible to bring them to a “single denominator”, i.e. to a unified cartographic basis.
Secondly, sections and cartographic materials are created in digital form in certain areas, essentially representing thematic cartographic and semantic bases of the geographic information system.
Thirdly, a related analysis of the above information is carried out and a synthetic scheme “Comprehensive urban planning analysis of the territory” is created, where the entire powerful arsenal of GIS technologies can be successfully applied.
Fourthly, based on the analysis, project proposals for the urban development of the territory (Project Plan) and sectoral engineering design schemes are being developed, detailing and supporting the project proposals of the General Plan, where the use of GIS technologies also seems to be very effective.

4.7 Use of GIS in emergency situations

GIS allows you to solve problems of assessing the causes of occurrence and forecasting the development of various emergency situations:
- forecasting the consequences of a leak of toxic substances at a hazardous facility for making decisions on evacuation of the population and assessing damage to the environment;
- forecast of forest fire development based on weather conditions;
- forecast of flooded areas during dam failures and floods;
- assessment of economic damage.

4.8 GIS and demography

GIS technologies are widely used to assess the composition of the population and to make decisions about the development of various social infrastructure facilities. For example, planning the load on secondary schools, kindergartens and medical institutions.

How does GIS work?

All geographic information contains information about spatial location, whether it is a reference to geographic or other coordinates, or references to an address, postal code, electoral or census district, land or forest identifier, road name, etc. When such links are used to automatically determine the location or locations of the feature(s), a procedure called geocoding is used. With its help, you can quickly determine and see on the map where the object or phenomenon you are interested in is located, such as the house where your friend lives or the organization you need is located, where an earthquake or flood occurred, which route is easier and faster to get to the point you need or at home.

Vector and raster models. GIS can work with two significantly different types of data - vector and raster. In a vector model, information about points, lines, and polygons is encoded and stored as a set of X,Y coordinates. The location of a point (point object), for example a borehole, is described by a pair of coordinates (X,Y). Linear features such as roads, rivers, or pipelines are stored as sets of X,Y coordinates. Polygon features, such as river watersheds, land parcels, or service areas, are stored as a closed set of coordinates. The vector model is particularly useful for describing discrete objects and is less suitable for describing continuously changing properties such as soil types or object accessibility. The raster model is optimal for working with continuous properties. A raster image is a set of values for individual elementary components (cells), it is similar to a scanned map or picture. Both models have their advantages and disadvantages. Modern GIS can work with both vector and raster models.

Problems that GIS solves. A general purpose GIS typically performs five data activities (tasks), among other things: input, manipulation, management, query and analysis, and visualization.

Enter. To be used in a GIS, data must be converted into a suitable digital format. The process of converting data from paper maps into computer files is called digitization. In modern GIS, this process can be automated using scanner technology, which is especially important for large projects, or, for small jobs, data can be entered using a digitizer. Many data have already been translated into formats that are directly understandable by GIS packages.

Manipulation. Often, to complete a specific project, existing data must be further modified to meet the requirements of your system. For example, geographic information may be at different scales (street centerlines are at a scale of 1:100,000, census tract boundaries are at a scale of 1:50,000, and residential properties are at a scale of 1:10,000). For joint processing and visualization, it is more convenient to present all data on a single scale. GIS technology provides different ways to manipulate spatial data and extract the data needed for a specific task.

Control. In small projects, geographic information may be stored as regular files. But with an increase in the volume of information and an increase in the number of users, it is more effective to use database management systems (DBMS) for storing, structuring and managing data, or special computer tools for working with integrated data sets (databases). In GIS, it is most convenient to use a relational structure, in which data is stored in tabular form. In this case, common fields are used to link tables. This simple approach is quite flexible and is widely used in many GIS and non-GIS applications.

Query and analysis. If you have GIS and geographic information, you will be able to receive answers to simple questions (Who is the owner of this land plot? At what distance from each other are these objects located? Where is this industrial zone located?) and more complex queries that require additional analysis (Where are there places for construction new house? What is the main type of soil under the spruce forests? How will the construction of a new road affect traffic?). Queries can be set either by simply clicking on a specific object or using advanced analytical tools. Using GIS, you can identify and set patterns for searching, and play out scenarios like “what will happen if...”. Modern GIS have many powerful tools for analysis, among which two are the most significant: proximity analysis and overlay analysis. To analyze the proximity of objects relative to each other, GIS uses a process called buffering. It helps answer questions like: How many houses are within 100 m of this body of water? How many customers live within 1 km of this store? What is the share of oil produced from wells located within 10 km from the management building of this oil and gas production unit? The overlay process involves the integration of data located in different thematic layers. In the simplest case, this is a mapping operation, but in a number of analytical operations, data from different layers is physically combined. Overlay, or spatial aggregation, allows, for example, the integration of data on soils, slope, vegetation and land tenure with land tax rates.

Visualization. For many types of spatial operations, the end result is a representation of the data in the form of a map or graph. A map is a very effective and informative way of storing, presenting and transmitting geographic (spatially referenced) information. Previously, maps were created to last for centuries. GIS provides amazing new tools that expand and advance the art and science of cartography. With its help, the visualization of the maps themselves can be easily supplemented with reporting documents, three-dimensional images, graphs and tables, photographs and other means, for example, multimedia.

Related technologies. GIS is closely related to a number of other types of information systems. Its main difference lies in the ability to manipulate and analyze spatial data. Although there is no single generally accepted classification of information systems, the following description should help distance GIS from desktop mapping, CAD, remote sensing, database management systems (DBMS) and technology. global positioning (GPS).

Desktop mapping systems use cartographic representation to organize the user's interaction with data. In such systems, everything is based on maps; the map is a database. Most desktop mapping systems have limited data management, spatial analysis, and customization capabilities. The corresponding packages work on desktop computers - PC, Macintosh and low-end UNIX workstations.

CAD systems are capable of design drawings and plans of buildings and infrastructure. To combine into a single structure, they use a set of components with fixed parameters. They are based on a small number of rules for combining components and have very limited analytical functions. Some CAD systems have been extended to support cartographic representation of data, but, as a rule, the utilities available in them do not allow efficient management and analysis of large spatial databases.

Remote sensing and GPS. Remote sensing is the art and science of taking measurements of the earth's surface using sensors such as various cameras on board aircraft, global positioning system receivers, or other devices. These sensors collect data in the form of images and provide specialized processing, analysis and visualization capabilities for the resulting images. Due to the lack of sufficiently powerful data management and analysis tools, the corresponding systems can hardly be classified as real GIS.

Database management systems are designed to store and manage all types of data, including geographic (spatial) data. DBMSs are optimized for such tasks, so many GIS have built-in DBMS support. These systems do not have tools for analysis and visualization similar to GIS.

geographic information system mapping

GIS for teachers	Part 1: Introduction to GIS
	Goal: Understand what GIS is and what they are used for. Keywords: GIS, Computer, Maps, Data, Information Systems, Space, Analysis

Review:

Just as we use a word processor to work with words and prepare documents, we can use GIS application for working with sets spatial information on the computer. GIS stands for " Geographic Information System" Any GIS consists of the following interconnected components:

Digital data– geographic information that you view and analyze using hardware and software.
Hardware– computers used to store, display and process data.
Software– computer programs that run on hardware and allow you to work with digital data. The software that is part of a geographic information system is called a GIS application.

With a GIS application, you can open digital maps on your computer, create new spatial information and add it to the map, prepare printable maps to suit your needs, and perform spatial analysis.

Below is a simple example of using GIS. Imagine that a healthcare company noted the place of residence and the date of visit for each patient being treated:

Longitude	Latitude	Disease	date
26.870436	-31.909519	Flu	13/12/2008
26.868682	-31.909259	Flu	24/12/2008
26.867707	-31.910494	Flu	22/01/2009
26.854908	-31.920759	Measles	11/01/2009
26.855817	-31.921929	Measles	26/01/2009
26.852764	-31.921929	Measles	10/02/2009
26.854778	-31.925112	Measles	22/02/2009
26.869072	-31.911988	Flu	02/02/2009
26.863354	-31.916406	Chicken pox	26/02/2009

The table shows that measles cases occur in January and February. The location of each patient's home is noted in the table as latitude and longitude. Using this data in a GIS application, we can quickly learn more details about disease patterns:

Figure 1: Example showing patient records in a GIS application. It is easy to see that measles patients live close to each other.

More about GIS:

GIS is a relatively new field of knowledge, dating back to the 1970s. Previously, computerized systems were only available to large companies and universities with expensive equipment. Today, anyone with a personal computer or laptop can use GIS applications. Over time, GIS applications have also become easier to use - previously requiring extensive training, now anyone can start using GIS for everyday needs. As described above, GIS are more than just software; they cover all aspects of the management and use of digital geodata. In this tutorial, we will talk primarily about GIS applications.

What is a GIS application (software)?

You can see an example of what it looks like GIS application, above in Figure 1. GIS applications are computer programs with a graphical user interface controlled by a mouse and keyboard. The application contains a main menu at the top of the window (File, Editing, etc.), which, when clicked with the mouse, shows the corresponding command panels. Commands provide a way to tell the GIS application exactly what you want to do. For example, you can use the menu to send a command to add a new layer to the display list.

Figure 2: The application menu opened by the mouse shows a set of options, each of which is an executable command.

Toolbars(rows of small icons with commands that can be launched with a mouse click) are usually located directly below the main menu and provide quick access to the most frequently used functions.

Figure 3: Toolbars provide quick access to frequently used functions. Hovering over an icon usually
calls a tooltip with a description of the corresponding function.

A commonly used feature of a GIS application is displaying cartographic layers. Map layers are stored as files on disk or within a database. Typically, each map layer corresponds to specific real-world features, such as a road layer representing a road network.

When you open a layer in a GIS application, it appears in map areas.

The map area shows a graphical representation of your layer. When you add more than one layer to a map, the layers overlap each other. Figures 4-7 show a map with several layers added. An important function of the map is navigation, which includes zooming in, out, and moving the map.

Figure 4: Cities layer added on the map.	Figure 5: Schools layer added on the map.
Figure 6: Railroad layer added to the map.	Figure 7: Rivers layer added on the map.

Unlike paper maps, maps opened in GIS applications can be modified after they are created. You can change the shape and color of map layer legends. For example, if we take the map from Figure 7 and change its legend, it will completely change its appearance, as shown in Figure 8. Legend plays an important role in how we read maps, and they are quick and easy to change in a GIS. application.

Figure 8: You can easily change the symbology in a GIS application – a way to display data on a map.

Another common feature of GIS applications is map legend. The map legend contains a list of map layers loaded into the GIS application. Unlike a paper map legend, a legend in a GIS application provides the ability to rearrange layers, hide them, and create layer groups. By dragging layers with the mouse, you can change the order in which they are drawn on the electronic map. In Figures 9 and 10, the map legend is shown on the left side of the GIS application window. By changing the layer order, rivers appear on top of roads, rather than the other way around.

Installing a GIS application on your computer:

There are many GIS applications available. Some include advanced, highly specialized tools and cost tens of thousands of dollars per license. At the same time, there are a number of free GIS applications. The choice of application depends on what finances you have and on your personal preferences. The application used in this tutorial is Quantum GIS, also known as QGIS. Quantum GIS is completely free and you can copy it and share it with as many people as you like. If you received this manual in printed form, a copy of QGIS should accompany it. Otherwise, you can visit http://qgis.org and download a free copy.

Geodata:

Now we know what GIS and GIS applications are, let's talk about geodata. Data is a certain information. The information we use in GIS is usually georeferenced. Recall the above example of healthcare enterprise data. To store patient records, a table of the following type has been created:

Longitude	Latitude	Disease	date
26.870436	-31.909519	Flu	13/12/2008

The longitude and latitude columns contain geographic (spatial) data. The disease name and date are non-spatial data. A common function of GIS is to establish a connection between the first and second. In essence, a GIS application can store a wealth of information about each location, unlike a paper map, which has limited capabilities. For example, the gender and age of patients can be easily entered into the table in question. By adding a patient location layer to a GIS application, you can set its display to be based on age or disease type, or another attribute of the patient you want, whereas a paper map will only show one attribute. Thus, with a GIS application, we can change the appearance of our map based on the non-spatial information associated with specific locations.

GIS systems work with numerous types of data. Vector data are stored in computer memory in the form of sequences of coordinate pairs (X,Y). Vector data is used to represent points, lines, and areas (polygons). Figure 11 shows the different types of vector data exposed in a GIS application. Vector data will be discussed in more detail later in this tutorial.

Figure 11: Vector data used for representation points (city), lines (rivers) and polygons (district boundaries).

Raster data stored as a grid of values. Numerous satellites orbit the Earth, and the photographs they produce are raster images that can be viewed in a GIS application. One of the main visible differences between raster data and vector data is that when you zoom too close to a raster image, it consists of squares (see Figures 12 and 13). Each of these squares is a separate cell in the data grid that makes up the raster image. Raster data will be discussed in more detail later in this tutorial.


Figure 12: Satellite image - typical example raster data. This photo shows mountains.		Figure 13: The same data, but this time with more approaching. The grid structure of the image is visible.

What have we learned?

Let's consolidate the material we've learned:

GIS is a system of hardware, software and geodata.
GIS application allows you to view geodata and is an important part of the GIS.
A GIS application typically includes Main menu, toolbars, map area And legend.
Geographic data used in a GIS application is raster And vector.
Geographical data can be combined with non-spatial data.

Try it yourself!

Below are some examples of practical tasks for your students:

Describe the concept of GIS to your students, as done in this manual. Ask them to name 3 reasons why using GIS is better than using paper maps. Below are sample answers:
- A GIS application allows you to create many different maps based on the same data;
- GIS is an excellent visualization tool that allows you to look at your map at different scales;
- Paper maps require a lot of work to create and even viewing them takes a long time. GIS can store very large amounts of data and makes the process of finding desired locations simple and fast.

Consider how raster data from satellites is used. For example:
- During natural disasters, raster data can show affected areas. For example, a recent satellite image taken during a flood helps locate people whose homes were submerged.
- Sometimes people cause harm to the environment, such as storing dangerous chemicals that kill plants and animals. Using satellite data, we can monitor such problems.
- City planners use raster data from satellites to help identify new developments and help plan infrastructure.

If you don't have a computer:

Many of the topics covered in this manual can be visualized using a projection device and transparencies because... they depict a similar overlay of layers of information. However, a proper understanding of GIS is always achieved better using a computer.

Informatization has affected all aspects of society today, and it is difficult, perhaps, to name any sphere of human activity - from schooling to high public policy - where its powerful impact is not felt.

Computer science is “breathing down the neck” of all the Earth sciences, catching up and carrying them along, transforming, and sometimes completely enslaving them in the pursuit of endless computer perfection. Scientists today can no longer imagine their work without computers and digital information databases. In the geosciences, information technology gave rise to geoinformatics and geographic information systems (GIS), and the word “geographical” in this case means “spatiality” and “territoriality,” as well as the complexity of geographical approaches.

GIS is a hardware-software and at the same time human-machine complex that provides collection, processing, display and distribution of data. Geographic information systems differ from other information systems in that all their data is necessarily spatially coordinated, that is, tied to the territory, to geographic space. GIS is used to solve all kinds of scientific and practical problems. GIS help analyze and model any geographical situation, make forecasts and manage processes occurring in the environment. GIS is used to study all those natural, social and natural-social objects and phenomena that are studied by earth sciences and related socio-economic sciences, as well as cartography and remote sensing. At the same time, GIS is a complex of hardware devices and software products (GIS shells), and the most important element of this complex is automatic mapping systems.

The structure of a GIS is usually represented as a system of information layers. Conventionally, these layers can be considered in the form of a “layer cake” or whatnot, on each shelf of which a map or digital information on a specific topic is stored.

In the process of analysis, these layers are “removed from the shelves”, examined separately or combined in different combinations, analyzed and compared with each other. For a given point or area, you can obtain data for all layers at once, but the main thing is that it becomes possible to obtain derived layers. One of the most important properties of GIS is precisely that, based on existing information, they are able to generate new derived information.

Resource GIS is one of the most common types of GIS in geosciences. They are intended for inventory, assessment, protection and rational use of resources, to predict the results of their operation. Most often, for their formation, existing thematic maps are used, which are digitized and entered into databases in the form of separate information layers. In addition to cartographic materials, GIS includes data from long-term observations, statistical information, etc. An example is “GIS -”, created by the countries of the Black Sea basin. This basin, with its diverse marine life, abundant fish resources, warm sandy beaches and uniquely beautiful coastal landscapes that attract tourists, has experienced catastrophic environmental degradation in recent decades. This sharply reduces fish resources, reduces recreational potential, and leads to degradation of valuable coastal wetlands. To centralize the adoption of urgent measures to save the Black Sea, the countries of the region have developed a “Program to save the Black Sea.” An important part of this program was the creation of a resource and environmental “GIS - Black Sea”. This GIS performs two functions - modeling and informing about the whole and individual components of its environment. Information is necessary for conducting scientific research in the water area and the adjacent part of the Black Sea basin and for making decisions on the protection and protection of this unique water area. "GIS - Black Sea" contains about 2000 maps. They are presented in seven thematic blocks: geography, biology, meteorology, physical oceanography, chemical oceanography, biology, and fisheries resources.

Geoinformation mapping

The interaction of geoinformatics and cartography became the basis for the formation of a new direction - geoinformation, i.e. automated modeling and mapping of objects and phenomena based on GIS.

With the introduction of GIS, traditional cartography has experienced a radical overhaul. It can only be compared with the changes that accompanied the transition from handwritten maps to printed printing. In their wildest dreams, cartographers of past eras could not have foreseen that instead of engraving on a lithographic stone, it would be possible to draw a map by moving a cursor across a computer screen. And these days, geographic information mapping has almost completely replaced traditional methods of compiling and publishing maps.

Software-driven mapping forces us to take a fresh look at many traditional problems. The choice of the mathematical basis and layout of maps has fundamentally changed; computer maps can be quickly transferred from one projection to another, freely scaled, change the “cutting” of sheets, introduce new visual means (for example, flashing or moving signs on the map), use mathematical filters for generalization and smoothing functions, etc. Previously labor-intensive operations of calculating lengths and areas, converting maps or combining them have become routine procedures. Electronic cartometry emerged. The creation and use of maps has become a single process; during computer processing, images are constantly transformed, moving from one form to another.

GIS technologies have given rise to another new direction - operational mapping, i.e. the creation and use of maps in real or near real time. There is an opportunity to quickly, or rather, promptly inform users and influence the progress of the process. In other words, with real-time mapping, incoming information is immediately processed and maps are drawn up for assessment, monitoring, management, and control of processes and phenomena that change at the same pace.

Operational computer maps warn (signal) about unfavorable or dangerous processes, allow you to monitor their development, give recommendations and predict the development of situations, choose options for stabilizing or changing the course of the process. Such situations are created, for example, when they arise in the taiga, when it is necessary to quickly monitor their spread and quickly take measures to extinguish the fire. During the period of snow melting and catastrophic downpours, it is necessary to monitor river spills and floods, and in emergency situations, changes in the ecological state of the territory. During the liquidation of the Chernobyl accident, cartographers did not leave their computers day and night, drawing up operational maps of the movement of clouds of radioactive contamination over the territories adjacent to the source of the disaster. They also monitor the development of political events and military operations in hot spots of the planet. The initial data for operational mapping are aerial and space images, direct observations and measurements, statistical materials, results of surveys, censuses, referendums, etc. Cartographic animations provide enormous opportunities and sometimes unexpected effects. Animation program modules are capable of moving maps or three-dimensional diagrams across the screen, changing the display speed, moving individual signs, making them blink and vibrate, changing the color and illumination of the map, “highlighting” or “shading” certain areas of the image, etc. For example, on on the map, the color of the areas exposed to danger changes: the “safe” bluish color of the glaciers gradually turns into pinkish, and then into bright red, crimson, which means: dangerous, avalanches are possible! Effects that are completely unusual for cartography create panoramas, changes in perspective, the scale of parts of the image (you can divide “dissolves” and remove objects), the illusion of movement over the map (perform a “fly around” of the territory), including at different speeds. In the foreseeable future, the prospects for the development of cartography in the geosciences are associated, first of all, and almost entirely with geoinformation mapping, when there is no need to prepare printed copies of maps: upon request, it will always be possible to obtain an image of the object or phenomenon being studied in real time on a computer screen. Some cartographers believe that the introduction of electronic technology "means the end of three hundred years of cartographic drawing and publishing of printed cartographic products." Instead of maps and atlases, the user will be able to request and immediately receive all the necessary data in machine-readable or visualized form. And even the very concept of “atlas” is proposed to be reconsidered.