26.2.1. If a situation requiring disembarkation of passengers occurs due to a malfunction of the rolling stock, track structure or external decoration of the tunnel and does not threaten the safety of passengers, the driver must perform the following actions:
26.2.2. After installing the grounding device (while on the path), proceed with the installation of a similar device, for which you must:
Unscrew (counterclockwise) the fasteners 3 ladders 1 similar device, having previously freed them from the fixing wire. Remove the clamps and put them in the control cabin;
Carefully, avoiding injury to your fingers, remove them one by one from the guide brackets. 2 first one, then the other ladder. Place the removed ladders on the path in any order.
Unscrew the lamb 5 guide rod mounting bracket 4 and unscrew the lock 6, having previously freed them from the fixing wire.
NOTE: to break the fixing wire, it is advisable to use a sledge hammer from the rail fastener kit included in the train tool;
Barbell 4 unfold horizontally and, if necessary, change its working length by moving it in the socket 7 , securely install the guide bracket closest to the emergency exit door 2 ;
Install the ladders one by one 1 similar device in such a way that the grooves on them rest on the guide rod 4 fixed in a horizontal position.
26.2.3. From the control cabin, open the emergency exit door (opens outward), first turning the handles to disengage the “tongues” of both latches.
26.2.4. Fix the emergency exit door in the open position using the lock provided for this purpose so that the rod, consisting of two half-rods, takes the form of a straight line. Move the handrail of the emergency exit door into working position and securely fix it.
26.2.5. Turn on the white headlights towards the passengers exit.
26.2.6. Using a loudspeaker microphone, announce to the cabins about the upcoming disembarkation of passengers into the tunnel, call them to calm and indicate the route: " Dear passengers! The train won't go any further. Exit from the cars will be made from the head car along the train (in the opposite direction) through the end doors towards the station “...”. When exiting the carriages, maintain calm and order. Be careful when following the path!”
NOTE: if the dispatcher has indicated the direction of passenger evacuation opposite to the movement of the train, then the actions in accordance with clause 16.5 are performed by the driver in the cabin of the tail car.
AGREED: AGREED:
Deputy head of the metro – Deputy head of the metro –
Chief Auditor for Traffic Safety Head of the Rolling Stock Service
V.V. TITOV______________ I.M. ZAKOVYRKIN__________
"_____" _____________ 2010 "______" ________________ 2010
LOCAL INSTRUCTIONS
ABOUT THE PROCEDURE FOR THE OPERATOR'S ACTION IN THE EVENT OF MALFUNCTIONS ON THE 81-717.5M; 81-714.5M SERIES TRAINS.
MOSCOW 2010
INTRODUCTION
This instruction determines the procedure for the driver to act in the event of malfunctions on the subway rolling stock.
The requirements of these instructions can be met provided that the driver knows the Rules for the Technical Operation of Subways of the Russian Federation, the Instructions for Train Movement and Shunting Operations on Subways, job descriptions and rolling stock equipment. The efficiency of the driver’s actions must be combined with ensuring the safety of train traffic and compliance with the requirements of the Safety Instructions.
GENERAL PROVISIONS
1. The main task of drivers when a malfunction occurs on electric rolling stock is to eliminate it in the shortest possible time and remove the faulty rolling stock from the line. The efficiency of the locomotive crew's actions must be combined with both ensuring the safety of train traffic and fulfilling the requirements of the Labor Safety Instructions.
2. In the event of a malfunction on electric rolling stock, the driver is obliged to:
2.1. Find out the nature of the malfunction by treating the control cabin in accordance with the requirements of these Local Instructions.
2.2. Immediately report the incident to the train dispatcher, indicating the nature of the malfunction and the location of the train (train), as well as your further actions.
2.3. Take measures to eliminate the malfunction of electric rolling stock in accordance with these Local Instructions.
2.4. Report to the train dispatcher about the elimination of the malfunction on the electric rolling stock and the further procedure and then act according to his instructions.
3. In the event of a forced stop of a train (composition), the driver is obliged:
3.1. Stop the train, if possible, on the platform and straight section of the track near the tunnel telephone, unless an emergency stop is required.
3.2. After stopping, report this to the train dispatcher, inform passengers about the delay in the departure of the train and maintain calm (in accordance with the list of passenger information texts transmitted by the locomotive crew via train radio notification). Depending on the track profile, brake the train (train) with parking (hand) brakes and make sure that the train (train) does not roll away.
3.3. Find out the possibility of further travel, take measures to eliminate the obstacle to movement that has arisen
3.4. After removing the obstacle to movement, report this to the train dispatcher, release the parking (hand) brakes and continue the further movement of the train (train).
3.5. If it is impossible to remove the obstacle to traffic, request a recovery formation and, in agreement with the train dispatcher, ensure the removal or removal of passengers from the tunnel to the station, in the manner established by the Metro Administration.
3.6. If an obstacle to traffic is detected on an adjacent track, the locomotive crew (driver) must take measures to stop the oncoming train by reporting the obstacle to the train dispatcher with a requirement to stop the oncoming train at the station, or give a manual (audible) stop signal if the oncoming train is within sight .
3.7. In case of approaching a train in front that has stopped on a platform or rise, the driver is obliged to stop his train at a distance of at least 25 m before it, and at a rise of more than 0.030 - at least 50 m, give a stop signal (three short whistles), and report to the train operator dispatcher and continue to act according to his instructions.
3.8. In the event of a forced speed limit of no more than 10 km/h, the driver is obliged to turn off the ALS - ARS train devices and report this to the train dispatcher. On the Lublin Line, where the main means of signaling during train movement is ALS-ARS, request that the automatic blocking signal lights be turned on.
3.9. In all cases of emergency stopping of a train (composition) by a pneumatic brake, including from the action of replacement valves No. 2, it is necessary to report to the train dispatcher and take measures to check the condition of the wheel pairs in motion, for which purpose call an instructor driver to the train.
3.10. About all identified shortcomings and violations normal operation electric rolling stock, devices and structures of the metro, the driver, at the end of the shift, must write a report in the prescribed form.
The world of modern vehicles is replete with a variety of models and types of transport. Every year, new prototypes of modern means of transportation appear, both old types of transport with minor modifications, and completely incomprehensible and futuristic-looking devices. We often tend to classify such new products into old and familiar categories: a car, motorcycle, plane, snowmobile. But what is the basis of the differences between types of equipment that seem to be completely identical in external characteristics? Why do we confidently assign externally similar devices to one group or another? Why are motorcycles and mopeds classified as various types technology?
Historical summary
Today, the motorcycle we are familiar with has evolved along different paths. Many people worked on the design that is familiar today. It all started with a bicycle. At a certain stage, they tried to modify the bicycle, first installing a steam engine on it, and then an internal combustion engine. The first mopeds and motorcycles most closely resembled a typical bicycle with an engine installed on it. Having followed different branches of development, the moped and motorcycle acquired properties that meet the needs of citizens. An example of such a return could be a company Honda.
In the post-war period, Japan was going through difficult times; movement around the city was difficult due to bombed streets. Conventional transport had great difficulty moving along routes destroyed by the war. From these inconveniences came the first mopeds, and later motorcycles, developed Soichiro Honda.
This man was a brilliant engineer. Having installed a small internal combustion engine on his personal bicycle, he soon began selling them on an industrial scale. The moped of that time ideally met the requirements of society. Cheap, compact and mobile compared to other street vehicles. These qualities distinguish a moped from a motorcycle even today.
Motorcycle characteristics
A motorcycle is a vehicle with a fairly powerful engine. The design can be two, three, or four-wheeled (quad bike), it also allows for the presence of a passenger stroller, a caterpillar track, and in this case it is called a snowmobile. Motorcycle engine capacity may vary from 50 to 2000 cm 3.
The structure of a motorcycle may be similar to a moped, but the decisive characteristic is power. To drive a motorcycle, the driver requires a special category “A” driver’s license. Recently, to drive low-power mopeds, it is also necessary to have an A1 category license. Today there are a huge variety of motorcycles, from civilian models for everyday riding to sports models highly specialized for various disciplines of motorsports. The best models, sometimes undergoing slight modifications, end up on city streets.
Characteristics of the moped
A moped is a less powerful vehicle than any motorcycle. Its power is limited by engine size and maximum speed. A moped most often does not have a gearbox, and the driving speed is regulated only by the gas handle. At one time, mopeds were in great demand among low-income people. The light weight of the structure ensures that the moped consumes less fuel compared to its older brother, the motorcycle.
At the same time, the mobility of the vehicle remains high. Add to this compactness and low cost and you get the ideal city transport for the middle and lower class. Motorcycles also developed along a similar path to the moped; engines were installed on bicycles. Some modern models still resemble an improved bicycle. They even have pedals that make it possible to set the moped in motion like riding a regular bicycle, without starting the engine.
However, more often than not, the appearance of a modern moped clearly states that it has a very distant relationship with both a motorcycle and a bicycle. People's love for mopeds is largely due to their convenience. In addition to the conveniences associated with compactness and low cost, the fact that the moped did not require registration, rights and other bureaucratic conventions made this transport an excellent alternative.
Obvious differences
One of the main differences between a motorcycle and a moped has always been engine power. Despite all their similarities, these cars are in conditionally different weight categories. Roughly speaking, a moped is a motorcycle with an engine capacity of up to 50 cubic centimeters. The small engine gives rise to one of the features of the moped. This is a relatively low speed up to 50 km/h, this limitation does not allow vehicle keep up with other transport in the general flow and separates it into a separate category. This distinction applies on the territory of the Russian Federation and may differ on the territories of other states. The huge difference between a moped and a motorcycle lies in their design. A motorcycle in any modern incarnation has a number of mandatory features:
- The presence of a gearbox that provides switching between fixed speeds.
- The presence of a volumetric (over 50 cm 3) engine.
- No pedals.
It is worth remembering that the presence of a gearbox and the absence of pedals does not mean a motorcycle in 100% of cases. As was said earlier, the configuration of a moped can replicate a motorcycle in everything except power.
Another difference is various dimensions. Most often, a moped, even one that is very similar in structure to a motorcycle, has a much smaller size and weight. An exception may be some types of sports motorcycles, but here again the power determines.
As a result, it turns out that a moped and a motorcycle are similar in many ways, the main difference, contrary to everything else, is the legislative convention that places the moped in a separate category.
Purpose. The procedure for checking the fastening of elements of similar devices (including handrails).
Similar devices are designed for passengers to exit the tunnel during an emergency, as well as for the passage of the city population and passengers into the tunnels following civil defense signals.
They are installed at the head and tail along both tracks at tunnel-type stations.
The device has two positions – non-working (when all elements are within the equipment’s approach clearance) and working (when the devices allow you to climb from the path to the platform or descend from the platform to the path).
The chipboard checks every night for the presence of padlocks and fasteners, which is recorded accordingly in the inspection log.
There are several types of similar devices:
A, B, USM, TSM (TSM – Circle and Sokolnicheskaya lines)
Operations performed when cleaning the station. Multiplicity of operations during main and routine cleaning of stations.
The types of operations performed when cleaning the station, as well as their frequency, are indicated in the TPRS Appendix (section 5)
To organize the sanitary maintenance of the station, the following types of cleaning are established:
Basic cleaning - carried out at night
routine cleaning – carried out during the day and evening
periodic cleaning - for example - wiping rear-view mirrors, cleaning drainage grilles, washing/wiping air intake valves
Depending on weather conditions, as well as during mass transportation, the frequency of work may vary.
Ticket number 14.
2. Actions of DSCP and chipboard when the arrow is cut.
Switch cutting is the forced translation of switch points by wheel pairs of rolling stock when traveling in the downward direction along an unprepared route.
Signs of a broken arrow on the control panel:
the arrow loses position control
rail switch circuit will show occupancy
the bell will ring and the red light will flash
if a route has been specified that includes control of this arrow, incl. As a security light, the traffic light along this route will be closed to a prohibitory indication.
It is prohibited for the DSCP to move the cut arrow without the permission of the work manager, as well as to cancel and cut the route that included the cut arrow.
If the arrow is cut, the DSCP must inform the DTSH and ShN, and make a note about this in the Inspection Log.
If the rolling stock that has cut the switch stops on the points of the switch, the driver must give a request to the control center to relieve the tension from the contact rail.
The DTSH gives an order to the ETSH to relieve the voltage from the contact rail. The ETSH relieves the tension and gives an order to the DTSH, the driver of the train who cut the switch, and the DS station (the ETSH order is not registered at the station). The driver, having received the order, installs the short-circuit, reports to the control center and begins the inspection.
In the absence of derailment of wheel pairs, movement along the cut turnout is allowed only by order of the DTSH (on park tracks - DSCP) on the basis of an application from the work manager (an employee of the Track Service not lower than RAP, and in his absence - an employee of the Sh Service not lower than ShN).
It is prohibited to move along a cut switch until it is inspected and repaired by employees of the Track Service and the Signaling and Communications Service.
The release of the switch from the rolling stock is carried out by order of the DTSH (DSCP) under the control of the work manager at a speed of no more than 10 km/h with the readiness to stop at the signal of the work manager.
If impossible prompt elimination consequences of the cut, further movement along the arrow is permitted on the basis of an entry in the Inspection Log of the Track Service employee (not lower than the RAP). The recording is the basis for issuing written warnings. The entry must indicate the direction of movement and the permissible speed of movement along the arrow.
The wits are locked in the required position with a tab and padlock or sewn up. In this case, the arrow is switched off from centralization while maintaining the use of signals (placement on the layout).
It is prohibited for the DSCP to move the cut switch without the permission of the work manager, as well as to cancel and cut the route that includes the cut switch, without the permission of the DTS.
After inspection and elimination of the consequences of the incision, the first train (set) is allowed to pass along the switch when the traffic light is prohibited by order of the DTSH or by order of the DTSH or DSSP at a speed of no more than 10 km/h, and on park tracks - by order of the DSSP.
Subsequently, trains (convoys) are passed at a speed set by the track service employee.
After completing the work and turning on the arrow in the centralization, the person on duty at the centralization post is obliged to check with the signaling electrician that the control of both positions of the arrow on the console corresponds to the actual position. The results of the inspection are documented in the “Inspection Log” with their joint signatures.
3. Organizing the passage of workers into the tunnel (ground section) along the way in the presence of voltage on the contact rail.
During the movement of trains and the presence of voltage on the Kyrgyz Republic, workers enter the tunnel to perform work provided for by the technical process in the presence of a work order and a pass (passage to objects “M” under voltage). Outfits can be issued by the heads of “M”, services, distances, electric depots, as well as persons designated by these orders. The outfit is registered in a special journal. The work order is drawn up in 2 copies, for a period of no more than 15 calendar days from the date of issue. During the execution of work, one copy of the work order is kept by the group leader, the other by chipboard, DDE. Targeted training must be carried out with employees whose full names are indicated in the work order. The brigade members are instructed by the brigade senior (work manager), and he is given the instructions by the person who issued the work order. The work order indicates: validity period, name of structural unit “M”, who issued the work order, time of work, place of work, nature of work, team F is listed .AND ABOUT. and position, signature in receiving instructions and instructing, column special conditions must be filled out and indicate safety measures (written, oral, speed reduction). The work order is signed by the group leader responsible for the safe performance of work and who issued the work order. The order contains chipboard and DDE marks, where the chipboard puts a mark when entering the tunnel - date, time, number of people, signature. And when leaving the tunnel - date, time, number of people, signature. A group of 2 to 5 people can go through at the same time. There is a list of objects to which work can be carried out during the movement of trains and in the presence of voltage on the railway. An extract from the list regarding this station is located in the occupational safety folder in the chipboard cabin. Passage of workers into the tunnel by train is possible only when trains of 30 pairs or less are moving. An extract for the passage of workers along the line from the State Traffic Police Department is located in the DSP cabin, certified by the Department of Labor.
Workers heading into the tunnel present ID cards with the stamps “T” and “under voltage” to the chipboard, along with a work order, stating the reason for entering the facility. DSP notifies the DSH about the passage of workers along the line. The chipboard includes working and emergency lighting as directed by the distribution center, as well as the chipboard of the adjacent station if necessary. The chipboard makes a note in the work order, keeps one, and registers the workers in the book “Passage, passage of workers, tunnel, park paths” in DU-5. Each train driver receives a verbal or written warning. If verbal warnings are required, then the senior troupe transmits the request to the control center orally via train dispatch communications, and if written, then makes a request in the inspection log, which may indicate what kind of lighting needs to be left for their work if there is no autonomous lighting at the facility. If workers go to a facility located up to 60 meters from the end door of the station, they go on foot, at a distance of over 60 meters - by train. Notification of the location of the upcoming disembarkation of workers is given to the driver by the DTSH, DSP (as an exception, the group leader will indicate the disembarkation location if they are going to troubleshoot a fault). Workers must wear safety vests and have working battery-powered flashlights. The interval between groups is not less than the interval between trains. The chipboard opens the end door, turns off the UKPT, and lets them pass behind the train, which the DTS indicates. The next train will be delayed at the station and the driver will be warned. After the workers pass, the chipboard closes the end door and turns on the UKPT.
The DSP organizes the boarding of workers on the train, warning the driver about the disembarkation location. Transmits verbal warnings to drivers at the direction of the DTS, written warnings based on the order of the DTS. Descent through the doors is carried out in the presence of a niche, banquette, similar service bridge or other safe place. They go down the steps from the carriage, facing the carriage, holding the handrails; jumping is prohibited. After disembarking, the group leader makes sure that the group has retreated to a safe place and gives the driver a signal to set the train in motion. After arriving at the site, the team leader reports on the location of all workers at the DTS site or to his dispatcher, who in turn reports to the DTS. From this moment on, leaving the site is prohibited. The DCH, having received the message, instructs the DSP to turn off the lighting in the tunnel and to stop issuing warnings (oral or written). The basis for resuming the issuance of warnings is a message from the group senior about the readiness of workers to exit the facility into the tunnel. The DTSh instructs the DSP to turn on the lighting in the tunnel, and the driver, via train radio communication or through the DSP, to remove workers from the tunnel; and the chipboard for which train the workers will leave. Until the train arrives, workers are in shelter ( safe place). The leader of the group, waiting for the train, is in front with the signal light turned on (transparent white light) directed towards the train. After the train stops, the driver gives three short signals, and the workers climb the bridge at the command of the group leader. Boarding/disembarking through the door of the driver's cabin of the lead car towards the opposite RC or through the 3rd right door of the passenger car compartment, if the RC is on the left side, if the RC is with right side, then through the left door of the driver's cab. The group leader, when exiting/exiting the tunnel, reports to the DCH. The DCH gives instructions to cancel the issuance of warnings. All workers, after leaving/exiting the tunnel, must report to the traffic control center to register the exit and receive a work order. The chipboard registers the exit in the book “Passage, passage of workers into the tunnel, park paths” (DU-5) and the work order, signs and gives the work order to the senior group. When handing over duty, the DSP is obliged to transfer information on the shift about the presence of workers in the tunnel in the book DU-5, the DSP handing over the shift makes a record of the presence of workers, and the DSP that accepted the shift signs.
Actions of chipboard in case of fire in an electric train. Preparation of fire extinguishing equipment, procedure for using fire hoses.
The chipboard, having received a message about a fire in an electric train, must:
* Call the city fire department at tel. 6-101.
* Report the fire to the fire department “M” t.2-18-20
* Prepare primary fire extinguishing means (bring fire extinguishers, lay a hose from the fire hydrant to the stopping place of the burning car).
* Instruct the police officer to close the station in full; Art. display a sign for the cashier indicating that the station is closed; DUE give a request to switch escalators to ascend (except for one, it must work to descend, for arriving firefighters, ambulances and other units); organize notification of passengers about evacuation routes.
* Organize the evacuation of passengers and fire extinguishing.
* After removing the tension from the CR, inform the locomotive crew about this; at the direction of the DCH, fill out the form for notification of the release of tension from the Kyrgyz Republic and hand it in against signature.
* Report to the DCH on the current situation at the station
* Give the driver or arriving firefighters a KTT.
If the driver received information from passengers or saw a fire on the train himself, but at the same time had already left the station, he must take measures to stop the train (before the signal sign “Limit place for using emergency braking”, get into communication with the words “Dispatcher, Urgent!” Next, inform your train number, route, station from which you left, and the reason for the emergency braking. The DTSH, having received such a message, notifies the driver that he will soon give an order to him. Calls the driver of the following train, and warns about the prohibition of entry into the station, having received confirmation from the second driver, that he understood, give an order to the driver of the 1st train to stop at a speed of no more than 5 km / h. The driver, having stopped the train at the station, is obliged to open the doors of the train, give a request to relieve tension from the vehicle, rather than extinguish the car with a fire extinguisher or water accepted by the driver.
Fire hoses must be at least 20 m long. 2 fire hoses are stored in pyramids on the platform. 20 m each, one of which must end with a trunk. Fire hydrants are installed on the vestibules in the floor of the passenger platform, at the ends of the passenger platform, between station passages. Each station corridor has a fire hydrant, fire hoses are attached to the fire hydrants, except for the fire hydrants located in the floor of the platform. The fire hose must end with a barrel; the fire hydrant can be installed in a wooden or metal box. The door is marked PC No...., the drawer is sealed with chipboard. On the pyramids and doors of fire hydrants the telephone numbers of the city fire department are indicated: 6-101, 2-18-20. The fire hydrants under the platform are covered with hatches; the hatches are painted red with white trim. Fire hydrants with fire hoses are used to extinguish a fire with water when removing tension from the contact rail on the platform, if extinguishing is carried out in passenger or service premises. There is a CTT kit in the chipboard cabin. issued to the fire extinguishing operator. The kit includes: a non-standard fire hose, with a nozzle; gloves; adapter devices for connecting paired hoses to both standard fire hydrants and utility valves in the tunnel. Extinguishing can be done without removing tension, since the nozzle sprays water into the cloud. At a station where the water pressure is 3 atmospheres or less, the CHP is used after the voltage is removed. On the metro, at a number of deep stations, dry pipes have been installed to supply water from the vestibule to the station platform from the city’s fire hydrangs, used by the city fire brigade. Stations without dry pipes are equipped with high-strength fire hoses. These hoses are used to supply water from fire trucks to the station platforms. Hoses are stored in the vestibules in metal containers that are locked, one key is kept by the senior cashier, issued to the city fire brigade along with the operational fire extinguishing plan, the second is stored in the electromechanical service and on the emergency board.
When the chipboard receives information about an arriving train on which a fire is possible, the chipboard prepares fire extinguishing means; upon the arrival of the train and after passengers disembark, the chipboard lays a hose line to the source of fire without creases or kinks. When using a fire hydrant in the floor of the platform, opens the hatch and attaches the fire hose. If you use a fire hydrant at the end of the station, the fire hose is already connected to the fire hydrant. To extend the fire hose, it is possible to attach a second fire hose to it (20m + 20m = 40m). If necessary, take fire hoses from the chipboard cabin; open the fire hydrant only after the voltage has been removed. The driver puts out the fire.
Ticket number 15.
2. The procedure for turning on and off automatic blocking on lines where the main means of signaling is the ALS-ARS system.
3. Payment procedure and conditions for travel and baggage transportation in the metro. Travel for privileged categories of citizens, including children.
Actions of the DSP in case of a traumatic incident with a station employee
provide first aid Assistance to the victim and his delivery to a medical facility;
immediately notify the DCH, DS, the distance management, which reports to the occupational safety sector and the management of the Service;
if possible, preserve the scene of the incident as it was at the time of the incident;
take explanations from the victim and eyewitnesses;
write a report;
Formalized by deed forms H-I, which is stored for 45 years
For minor injury - sick leave up to 60 days - the act is drawn up within 3 days by the enterprise commission. The act is drawn up in 3 copies (I-employer, 1 victim, I-insurance company). The commission draws up an investigation report signed by at least 3 people, indicating the circumstances and measures taken.
The commission is an odd number of people chaired by the employer (head of the Service, occupational safety engineer, fire safety engineer).
Cases with fatalities, group accidents that occur with two or more workers, regardless of the outcome, as well as severe accidents - if the disability lasts more than 60 days - are subject to special investigation. The chief state member of the commission is inspector, chairman of the dorprofsozh, representative of the insurance company and other persons from the service. The investigation period is 15 days.
An accident that was not reported by the victim or eyewitnesses within work shift or the disability did not occur immediately, is investigated at the request of the victim within no more than a month from the date of filing the application. The issue of drawing up an act of form H-I is decided after a comprehensive check, taking into account all the circumstances. Cases of natural death, suicide, and injuries caused by alcohol or drug intoxication are not taken into account.
Designation:
Appearance:
red-orange metallic luster
Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu (from Latin: cuprum) and the Mendeleev number 29. It is a ductile metal with fairly high thermal and electrical conductivity. Pure copper is soft and malleable; fresh outcrops are red-orange in color. Used as a conductor of heat and electricity, a building material and a component of various metal alloys. The metal and its alloys have been used for thousands of years. During the Roman era, copper was predominantly mined in Cyprus, hence the origin of the name cyprium (metal of Cyprus), later shortened to cuprum. Its compounds are commonly found as copper(II) salts, which often exhibit blue or green colors similar to minerals such as azurite and turquoise, which were historically widely used as pigments. Architectural structures are built using copper and, when exposed to corrosion, give a verdigris green (or patina). Applied arts prominently reflect the use of copper, both on its own and as a constituent of pigments. Copper is essential for all living organisms as a minor dietary mineral, as it is a key component of the respiratory enzyme complex cytochrome c oxidase. In mollusks and crustaceans, copper is part of the blood pigment hemocyanin, which is replaced by hemoglobin combined with iron in fish and other vertebrates. The main areas where copper is found in humans are the liver, muscles and bones. Copper compounds are used as bacteriostatic substances, fungicides and antiseptics for wood.
Characteristics
Physical
Copper, silver and gold are found in group 11 of the periodic table and share certain characteristics: they have one s orbital electron along with a filled d shell and are characterized by high ductility and electrical conductivity. The filled d-shells of these elements do not contribute much to s-electron-dominated interatomic interactions through metallic bonds. Unlike metals with unfilled d-shells, metallic bonds in copper do not have a covalent property and are quite weak. This explains the low hardness and high malleability of individual copper crystals. At the macroscopic level, the appearance of extended defects on the crystal lattice, such as grain boundaries, slowing down the movement of the material under imposed stress increases the hardness of the metal. For this reason, copper usually comes in a fine-grained polycrystalline form, which has greater strength than monocrystalline forms. Copper's softness partly explains its high electrical conductivity (59.6 x 106 S/m) and thus its high thermal conductivity, which is the second highest among pure metals at room temperature. The reason is that the resistance to electron transfer in metals at room temperature is mostly due to electron scattering due to thermal vibrations of the lattice, which are comparatively weaker in soft metals. Maximum permissible copper flux density at outdoors is approximately 3.1 x 106 A/m2 cross-sectional area, above this it begins to heat up excessively. As with other metals, if copper is placed close to another metal, galvanic corrosion will occur. Along with cesium and gold (both yellow), and osmium (bluish), copper is one of the four elemental metals with a natural color, other than gray or silver. Pure copper has a red-orange color and acquires a reddish patina when exposed to air. The characteristic color of copper is the result of electron hopping between the filled 3d and half-filled 4s shells of atoms - the energy difference between these shells corresponds to orange light. A similar mechanism causes yellow color gold and cesium.
Chemical
Copper does not react with water, but reacts slowly with atmospheric oxygen to form a layer of black-brown copper oxide which, unlike rust that forms when iron is exposed to moist air, protects the underlying copper from more extensive corrosion . A green layer of verdigris (copper carbonate) can often be observed on old copper structures such as the Statue of Liberty. Copper plaque, when exposed to the sulfides with which it reacts, forms various copper sulfides.
Isotopes
There are 29 isotopes of copper. 63Cu and 65Cu are stable, with 63Cu accounting for approximately 69% of naturally occurring copper; both have a spin of 3⁄2. Other isotopes are radioactive, with 67Cu being the most stable with a half-life of 61.83 hours. Seven metastable isotopes have been described, with 68mCu stable with a half-life of 3.8 minutes. Isotopes with a mass number above 64 are destroyed by β−, while isotopes with a mass number below 64 are destroyed by β+. 64Cu, which has a half-life of 12.7 hours, is destroyed by both methods. 62Cu and 64Cu have wide applications. 64Cu is a radiocontrast agent for X-ray imaging and, when combined with a chelate, can be used to treat cancer. 62Cu is used in 62Cu-PTSM, which is a radioactive isotope tracer for positron emission tomography.
Education
Copper is synthesized in large stars and is present in the Earth's crust at concentrations of about 50 parts per million (ppm), where it forms as native copper or in minerals such as the copper sulfides chalcopyrite and chalcocite, the copper carbonates azurite and malachite, and in copper(I) oxide mineral cuprite. The largest mass of elemental copper discovered is 420 tons and was found in 1857 on the Keweenaw Peninsula in Michigan, USA. Native copper is polycrystalline, with the largest single crystal described measuring 4.4 x 3.2 x 3.2 cm.
Production
Most copper is mined or extracted as copper sulfides from large open-pit mines in porphyry copper ore deposits that contain 0.4 to 1.0% copper. Examples include Chuquicamata in Chile, the Bingham Canyon Mine in Utah, United States, and the El Chino Mine in New Mexico, USA. According to the UK Geological Survey, Chile was the leading copper miner in 2005, producing at least one-third of the world's copper, followed by the United States, Indonesia and Peru. Copper can also be recovered through in-situ leaching. Some Arizona deposits are considered prime candidates for this method. The amount of copper used is growing and the share of available copper is barely enough to allow all countries to reach the world level of development of use.
Reserves
Copper has been in use for at least 10,000 years, but more than 95% of all copper ever mined and smelted has been mined since 1900, and more than half has been extracted in just the last 24 years. Because there are many natural sources, the total amount of copper on Earth is significant (about 1014 tons in just the top kilometer of the Earth's crust, or about 5 million years of mining at current rates). However, only a tiny fraction of these reserves are economically feasible given current prices and technology. Various estimates of existing copper reserves available for mining range from 25 to 60 years, depending on underlying assumptions such as development rates. Recycling represents the main source of copper in the modern world. Given these and other factors, the future of copper mining and supply is the subject of much debate, including the idea of peak copper production similar to peak oil. The price of copper has been historically volatile, rising sixfold from a 60-year low of $0.60/lb (1.32 $/kg) in June 1999 to $3.75/lb (8.27 $/kg) ) in May 2006. Then fell to 2.40 USD/lb (5.29 USD/kg) in February 2007, and then recovered to 3.50 USD/lb (7.71 USD/kg) in April 2007 d. In February 2009, weakening global demand and a sharp drop in commodity prices compared to last year's highs returned the copper price to 1.51 USD/lb (3.33 USD/kg).
Methods
The copper concentration in the ore averages only 0.6%, and commercial ores are mainly sulfides, especially chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) and to a lesser extent chalcocite (Cu2S). These minerals are concentrated from crushed ore at 10-15% copper levels through froth flotation or bioleaching. Heating this material with silica in flash smelting removes most of the iron as slag. The process easily converts iron into oxides, which in turn react with silicon dioxide, forming silicate slag, which floats to the surface of the molten mass. As a result, the copper matte consisting of Cu2S is further heated to convert all sulfides into oxides: 2 Cu2S + 3 O2 → 2 Cu2O + 2 SO2 Copper oxide is converted to blister copper by smelting: 2 Cu2O → 4 Cu + O2 Formation process Sudbury matte converts only half of the sulfides to oxides and then uses the oxides to remove the remaining sulfur as an oxide. Electrolytic refining and anode sludge were then used on the platinum and gold it contains. This step takes advantage of the fairly easy reduction of copper oxide into the metal. Natural gas is blown through the blister copper to remove most of the remaining oxygen, and then electrolytic refining is performed on the resulting material to produce pure copper: Cu2+ + 2 e− → Cu
Recycling
Like aluminum, copper is 100% suitable for reuse without loss in quality, regardless of whether it is in a raw state or part of an industrial product. By volume, copper is the third most recycled metal after iron and aluminum. It is estimated that 80% of the copper ever mined is now in use. According to the UN Resource Panel's Societal Stock of Metals Report, the global stock of copper in use per capita is 35–55 kg. A larger proportion occurs in more developed countries (140–300 kg per capita) than in less developed countries (30–40 kg per capita). The copper recycling process, simply put, is similar to that used to extract copper, but requires fewer steps. High purity scrap copper is melted in a furnace and then reduced and poured into blanks and molds; Low purity scrap is refined by electrolytic separation in a sulfuric acid bath.
Alloys
There are several copper alloys, many with important uses. Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. Bronze refers to copper-tin alloys, but can also refer to any copper alloys such as aluminum bronze. Copper is one of the most important karat constituents of silver and gold alloys, with karat solders being used in the jewelry industry to change the color, hardness, and melting point of the resulting alloys. An alloy of copper and nickel called cupronickel is used in low-denomination coins, often for the outer lining. The US 5 cent coin, called the nickel, is composed of 75% copper and 25% nickel and has a homogeneous structure. The alloy, composed of 90% copper and 10% nickel, is notable for its resistance to corrosion and is used in various parts exposed to seawater. Alloys of copper and aluminum (about 7%) have a pleasant golden color and are used in decorations. Some lead-free solders consist of tin alloyed with small amounts of copper and other metals.
Connections
Copper forms wide range compounds, usually due to the +1 and +2 oxidation states, which are often called cuprous and cuprous compounds, respectively.
Binary compounds
Like other elements, the simplest copper compounds are binary compounds, i.e. containing only two elements. They are predominantly represented by oxides, sulfides and halides. Oxides with both ferrous copper and divalent copper are known. Among the numerous copper sulfides, the most important examples include copper(I) sulfide and copper(II) sulfide. There are cuprous halides with chlorine, bromine and iodine, as well as cuprous halides with fluorine, chlorine and bromine. An attempt to obtain copper(II) iodide yields copper iodide and iodine. 2 Cu2+ + 4 I− → 2 CuI + I2
Coordination chemistry
Copper, like all metals, forms coordination compounds with ligands. In aqueous solution, copper (II) exists as 2+. This connection demonstrates the most fast speed water exchange (the rate at which water ligands attach and detach) to transition to the metal-aqua complex. The addition of aqueous sodium hydroxide causes a precipitate of light blue solid copper(II) hydroxide. Simplified equation: Cu2+ + 2 OH− → Cu(OH)2 Aqueous ammonia causes a similar precipitation. By adding excess ammonium, the precipitate dissolves to form tetraammine copper(II): Cu(H2O)4(OH)2 + 4 NH3 → 2+ + 2 H2O + 2 OH− Many other oxyanions form complexes; these include copper(II) acetate, copper(II) nitrate and copper(II) carbonate. Copper(II) sulfate forms a blue crystalline pentahydrate, which is the most recognizable copper compound in the laboratory. It is used as a fungicide called Bordeaux mixture. Polyols, compounds consisting of more than one alcohol functional group, generally react with copper salts. For example, copper salts are used in the reducing sugars test. Specifically, the use of Benedict's reagent and Fehling's solution in the presence of sugar signals through a color change from blue Cu(II) to reddish copper(I) oxide. Schweitzer's reagent and related complexes with ethylenediamine and other amines dissolve cellulose. Amino acids form fairly stable chelate complexes with copper (II). There are many liquid reagents for testing copper ions, one of them includes potassium ferrocyanide, which produces a brown precipitate with copper(II) salts.
Organic chemistry
Compounds containing a carbon-copper bond are known as organocopper compounds. They are highly reactive with oxygen, forming copper(I) oxide, and have many uses in chemistry. They are synthesized by treating copper(I) compounds with Grignard reagents, terminal alkynes, or organolithium reagents; in particular, the last reaction described produces Gilman's reagent. They can undergo substitution with alkyl halides, forming contact products; in fact, they are important in the field of organic synthesis. Copper(I) acetylide is highly shock sensitive but is a mediator in reactions such as the Kadio-Chodkiewicz reaction and Sonogashira coupling. Conjugation with enones and carbocupration of alkynes can also be achieved through organocopper compounds. Copper(I) forms many weak complexes with alkenes and carbon monoxide, especially in the presence of amine ligands.
Copper(III) and copper(IV)
Copper(III) is usually found in oxides. The simplest example is potassium cuprate, KCuO2, a black-blue solid. The most well-studied copper(III) compounds are copper acid superconductors. Yttrium-barium-copper oxide (YBa2Cu3O7) consists of both Cu(II) and Cu(III) centers. Like an oxide, fluoride is a highly basic anion and stabilizes metal ions in highly oxidized states. Moreover, fluorides of both copper (III) and even copper (IV), K3CuF6 and Cs2CuF6, respectively, are known. Some copper-containing proteins form oxo complexes, which also contain copper(III). As for di- and tripeptides, purple copper(III) complexes are stabilized by deprotonated amide ligands. Copper(III) complexes are also observed as mediators in reactions of organocopper compounds.
Story
Copper Age
Copper occurs naturally as native copper and is found in the records of some ancient civilizations. It has a history of use that dates back at least 10,000 years and is estimated to have been discovered in 9000 BC. in the Middle East; a copper pendant was discovered in northern Iraq and dates back to 8700 BC. This suggests that gold and meteoric iron (but not iron smelting) were the only metals used by humans before copper. The history of copper metallurgy supposedly developed in the following sequence: 1) cold working of native copper, 2) calcination, 3) smelting and 4) lost wax casting. In southeastern Anatolia, all four metallurgical techniques appeared more or less simultaneously in the New Stone Age in 7500 BC. However, just as agriculture was discovered independently in several regions of the world (including Pakistan, China, and America), copper smelting was invented in several different regions. It is thought to have been discovered independently in China before 2800 BC, in Central America perhaps around 600 AD, and in West Africa around the 9th or 10th century AD. Lost wax casting was invented in 4500–4000. BC. in Southeast Asia, carbon dating has established that mining took place at Alderley Edge in Cheshire, UK, from 2280 to 1890 BC. Ötzi the Iceman, male, dated 3300–3200 BC, was found with a copper-headed axis with a purity of 99.7%; high levels of arsenic in his hair indicate that he was involved in copper smelting. Experience with copper was accompanied by the development of other metals; in particular, copper smelting led to the discovery of iron smelting. Production at the Old Copper Complex in Michigan and Wisconsin dates back to between 6000 and 3000 BC. BC. Natural bronze, a type of copper made from ore enriched with silicon, arsenic and (rarely) tin, came into use in the Balkans around 5500 BC[source needed]
Bronze Age
Melting copper with tin to make bronze was first put into practice 4,000 years after the discovery of copper smelting, and about 2,000 years after that, “natural bronze” came into use. Bronze artifacts from the Vinca culture date back to 4500 BC. Sumerian and Egyptian copper and bronze alloy artifacts date back to 3000 BC. The Bronze Age began in southeastern Europe around 3700–3300. BC, in the North-West - about 2500 BC. It ended with the beginning of the Iron Age, 2000–1000. in the Middle East, 600 BC in Northern Europe. The transition between the Stone Age and the Bronze Age was previously called the Chalcolithic Age (copper-stone), when copper tools were used alongside stone ones. This concept gradually fell into disfavour, since in some parts of the world the Chalcolithic and Stone Ages share a common border at both ends. Brass, an alloy of copper and zinc, is of more recent origin. It was known to the Greeks, but became a significant addition to bronze during the Roman Empire.
Antiquity and the Middle Ages
In Greece, copper was known as chalcos (χαλκός). It was an important resource for the Romans, Greeks and other ancient peoples. During the Roman Empire it was known as Cyprium, a generic Latin term for copper alloys, and Cyprium from the name of the island of Cyprus, where large quantities of copper were mined. The word was shortened to cuprum and then to English copper. Aphrodite and Venus represent copper in mythology and alchemy because, due to its lustrous beauty, it was used in antiquity to make mirrors, and because of its connection with Cyprus, which was sacred to the goddess. The seven celestial bodies known in antiquity were associated with the seven metals known at that time, and Venus was assigned to copper. The first use of brass in Britain dates back to around the 3rd–2nd century BC. In North America, copper mining began as low-income mining by Native Americans. Native copper was recovered from deposits on Isle Royale by primitive stone tools between 800 and 1600 BC. Copper metallurgy flourished in South America, specifically in Peru around 1000 AD; more slowly it moved to other continents. Funerary ornaments made of copper from the 14th century have been found, but commercial production of the metal did not begin until the early years of the 20th century. The role of copper in culture is quite important, in particular as a means of payment. Romans from the 6th to the 3rd centuries BC. used pieces of copper as money. At first, copper was valued for its own sake, but gradually the shape and appearance of copper became increasingly important. Julius Caesar had his own coins made of brass, while Caesar's coins were made of Cu-Pb-Sn alloy. With an estimated annual output of approximately 15,000 tons, Roman copper mining and smelting activity reached a level unsurpassed before the Industrial Revolution; mining was most intensive in provinces such as Spain, Cyprus and Central Europe. The gates of the Jerusalem Temple are made of Corinthian bronze covered with gilding. This was widespread in Alexandria, where alchemy supposedly got its start. In ancient India, copper was used in the holistic medical science of Ayurveda for surgical instruments and other medical equipment. The ancient Egyptians (~2400 BC) used copper to disinfect wounds and drinking water, and later for headaches, burns and itching. The Baghdad battery, with copper cylinders soldered to a wire terminal, dates from 248 BC. to 226 AD and has a resemblance to a voltaic cell, leading people to believe that it was the first battery; has not been confirmed.
Nowadays
The Great Copper Mountain was a mine in Falun, Sweden that operated from the 10th century until 1992. It supplied two-thirds of Europe's demand for copper in the 17th century and financed many of Sweden's wars during this time. Mentioned as a national treasure; Sweden had a copper-backed currency. The use of copper in art was not limited to money: it was used by Renaissance sculptors, in the photographic technology known as the daguerreotype, and in the Statue of Liberty. Copper plating and copper plating on ship hulls were widespread; Christopher Columbus's ships were among the first to have this innovation. The Norddeutsche Affinerie in Hamburg was the first modern electroplating plant, starting production in 1876. The German scientist Gottfried Ozanne discovered powder metallurgy in 1830 and at the same time the determination of the atomic mass of metals; it was later discovered that the amount and type of element (such as tin) added to copper affected the tone of the bell. Flash smelting was developed by Outokumpu in Finland and first used in Harjavalta in 1949; The energy-saving process underpinned 50% of the world's primary copper production. The Interstate Council of Copper Exporting Countries, formed in 1967 by Chile, Peru, Zaire and Zambia, played a similar role to copper as OPEC played to oil. It never achieved the same influence, in part because it was the second largest producer; the United States was never a member of the Council; The council was dissolved in 1988.
Applications
The main uses of copper are in electrical wires (60%), as roofing and soldering (20%), and in industrial equipment (15%). Copper is primarily used as a pure metal, but when increased strength is required, it is combined with other elements into alloys (5% of general use), such as brass and bronze. A small portion of the copper supplied is used in the production of compounds for dietary supplements and fungicides in agriculture. Machining of copper is possible, although it is usually necessary to use an alloy for complex parts to obtain good machinability.
Wires and cables
Despite competition from other materials, copper remains the electrical conductor of choice in virtually all electrical wiring categories, with the major exception of overhead power transmission, where aluminum is often preferred. Copper wire is used in power generation, power transmission, power distribution, telecommunications, electronic circuitry and countless types of electrical equipment. Electrical wiring represents the most important market for the copper industry. It includes installation wire, communication cable, distribution cable, household wire, automotive wire and cable, and winding wire. Approximately half of all mined copper is used in the production of electrical wires and multi-core cables. Many electrical devices have copper wires due to their many beneficial properties such as high electrical conductivity, tensile strength, ductility, deformation resistance, corrosion resistance, low thermal expansion, high thermal conductivity, solderability and easy installation.
Electronics and similar devices
In integrated circuits and boards with printed circuit Copper is being used more and more instead of aluminum due to its outstanding electrical conductivity(See Copper Connection Panel as the main article); Copper is used in heat sinks and heat exchangers due to its significant heat transfer ability compared to aluminum. In electromagnets, cathode ray tubes, picture tubes and magnetrons in microwave ovens Copper is used because it provides a waveguide for microwave radiation.
Electric motors
Copper's higher conductivity compared to other metals improves the electrical efficiency of motors. This matters because motors and motor-driven systems account for 43%-46% of global electricity consumption and 69% of all electricity used by industry. Increasing the mass and cross-sectional area of the copper in the coil increases the electrical efficiency of the motor. Copper motor rotors, a new technology developed for motor applications where energy savings are a primary consideration, have the potential to make general purpose induction motors meet and exceed standards highest efficiency National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA).
Architecture
Copper has been used since ancient times as a wear-resistant, corrosion-resistant and weather-resistant building material. Roofs, spillways, gutters, outfall pipes, domes, spiers, arches and doors have been made from copper for hundreds and thousands of years. The use of copper in construction extends into modern times, including interior and exterior wall cladding, expansion joint installation, radio shielding, and antimicrobial interior items such as railings, plumbing fixtures, and support surfaces. Some other important beneficial properties of copper as a building material include low thermal deformation, light weight, lightning resistance and recyclability. The metal's signature property is its natural green patina, which has long been coveted by architects and designers. Ultimately, patina is a wear-resistant layer that is highly resistant to atmospheric corrosion, thus protecting the underlying metal from further deterioration. May be a mixture of carbonate and sulfate compounds in varying quantities, depending on conditions environment, such as sulfur-containing acid rain. Structural copper and its alloys are also “finished” to achieve a specific appearance, feel and/or color. Refinishing includes mechanical surface treatment, chemical painting and coating. Copper has excellent melting and soldering properties and can also be welded; the best results are observed through gas metal arc welding.
Anti-biofouling application
Copper is biostatic, meaning bacteria cannot grow on it. For this reason she for a long time used in ship parts for protection against barnacles and mollusks. Originally used as pure metal, it was later replaced by marine brass. Similarly, as discussed in copper alloys in aquaculture, copper alloys have become an important networking material in the aquaculture industry because they have antimicrobial properties and prevent biofouling, even in extreme conditions, and have strong structure and corrosion resistance in marine environments.
Antimicrobial use
Numerous antimicrobial efficacy studies have been conducted over the past 10 years on the ability of copper to kill a wide range of bacteria, such as influenza A virus, adenovirus and fungi. Copper alloy contact surfaces have natural intrinsic properties to kill a wide range of microorganisms (e.g. E. coli O157:H7, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), Staphylococcus, Clostridium difficile, influenza A virus, adenovirus and fungi). Some of the 355 copper alloys are confirmed to kill more than 99.9% causing diseases bacteria within just two hours at regular cleaning. The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has approved registration of these copper alloys as “antimicrobial materials with public health benefits,” which allows manufacturers to make health claims for products made from registered antimicrobial copper alloys. Moreover, the EPA has approved an extensive list of antimicrobial copper products made from these alloys, such as banisters, handrails, bedside tables, sinks, valves, door handles, toilet fixtures, computer keyboards, fitness center equipment, shopping cart handles, etc. d. (full product list: Antimicrobial Copper Alloy Contact Surfaces#Approved Products). Copper doorknobs were used in hospitals to reduce the spread of disease, and Legionnaires' disease was suppressed by copper pipes in plumbing systems. Antimicrobial copper alloy items are currently being installed in healthcare facilities in the UK, Ireland, Japan, Korea, France, Denmark and Brazil, as well as in underground transport systems in Santiago and Chile, where copper-zinc alloy railings have been installed at 30 stations in period 2011–2014
ethnoscience
Copper is widely used in jewelry, and folklore reports that copper bracelets relieve symptoms of arthritis. In alternative medicine, some proponents suggest that excess copper absorbed through the skin can cure certain diseases, or that copper produces a magnetic field to some extent that heals nearby tissue. Across studies, no differences were found between arthritis treated with a copper bracelet, a magnetic bracelet, or a placebo. As far as medical science is concerned, wearing copper does not useful action for any diseases at all. People can be deficient in dietary copper, but this is rare because copper is found in many common foods, including legumes (legumes), grains, and nuts. There is no evidence that copper can be absorbed through the skin. If this were real, it would actually lead to copper poisoning, which is actually more likely than a beneficial effect. IN Lately Some shapewear may be sold with copper woven into it, given the claims made by traditional medicine. While shapewear is a viable treatment for some medical conditions and the clothing may work, copper supplementation may not provide a benefit beyond the placebo effect.
Other Applications
Copper compounds in liquid form are used as wood preservatives, particularly in treating the original structure during storage against damage due to decay. Together with zinc, copper wires can be placed over non-conductive roofing materials to prevent moss growth. Copper is used in textile fibers to create antimicrobial protective fabrics, and it is also used in ceramic glazes, stained glass and musical instruments. Electroplating typically uses copper as a base for other metals such as nickel. Copper is one of three metals, along with lead and silver, used in a testing procedure for museum materials called the Oddy test. In this procedure, copper is used to detect chlorides, oxides and sulfur compounds. Copper is used as a printing plate in etching, engraving and other forms of metallography. Copper oxide and carbonate are used in glass production and in ceramic glazes to provide green and brown colors. Copper is the main alloying metal in some silver and gold alloys. It can be used on its own or as a constituent of brass, bronze, copper-zinc alloy for sleeves and many other polymetallic alloys.
Destruction
Chromobacter violet and Pseudomonas fluorescenta can mobilize solid copper in the form of a cyanide compound. Mycorrhizal fungi Ericoid Calluna, heather and vaccinium can grow in copper ore-bearing soil. The ectomycorrhizal fungi Suillus luteus protects young pine trees from copper-related toxicity. A sample of the fungus Aspergillus nigra was found growing in a gold mining solution; contains cyanometal complex, as well as gold, silver, copper, iron and zinc. The fungus also plays a role in the solubilization of heavy metal sulfides.
Biological role
The largest sources of copper include oysters, beef and lamb liver, Brazil nuts, raw molasses, cocoa and black pepper. Major sources include lobster, nuts and sunflower seeds, green olives, avocado and wheat bran. Copper-containing proteins have distinct roles in biological electron transfer and oxygen transport, processes that utilize the facile interconversion of Cu(I) and Cu(II). The biological role of copper begins with the presence of oxygen in the earth's atmosphere. The protein hemocyanin is an oxygen carrier in most mollusks and some arthropods such as the horseshoe crab (Limulus polyphemus). Because hemocyanin is blue in color, these organisms have blue blood, as opposed to the red blood found in organisms that use hemoglobin for this purpose. Compounds similar in structure to hemocyanin are represented by laccases and tyrosinases. Instead of reversibly binding oxygen, these proteins hydroxylate substrates, which is explained by their role in the formation of volatile varnishes. Copper is also a constituent of other proteins associated with oxygen processing. In cytochrome c oxidase, which is essential for cellular respiration, copper and iron work together to reduce oxygen levels. Copper is also found in many superoxide dismutases, proteins that catalyze the breakdown of superoxides by converting them (by redistribution) into oxygen and hydrogen peroxide: 2 HO2 → H2O2 + O2 Some copper-containing proteins, such as "blue copper proteins", do not interact directly with substrates , therefore, are not enzymes. These proteins transfer electrons through a process called electron transfer. A unique tetranuclear copper-containing center was discovered in nitric oxide reductase.
Nutritional needs
Copper is an essential trace element in plants and animals, but not in some organisms. The human body contains copper at levels of approximately 1.4 to 2.1 mg per kg of body weight. In other words, the RDA for copper for normal healthy adults is given as 0.97 mg/day and as 3.0 mg/day. Copper is absorbed in the large intestine and then transported to the liver, binding to albumin. After processing in the liver, copper is distributed to other tissues in the second phase. The copper transporter here includes the protein ceruloplasmin, which transports the vast majority of copper into the blood. Ceruloplasmin also transports copper, which is released into milk, and is partly a highly absorbable source of copper. Copper in the body usually undergoes enterohepatic recirculation (about 5 mg per day versus 1 mg per day absorbed from food and excreted), with the body able to excrete some excess copper as needed through bile, which carries some of the copper out of the liver, which then it is not reabsorbed in the intestine.
Annotation: The lecture discusses the basic physical and logical principles of organizing input-output in computing systems.
The functioning of any computing system usually comes down to performing two types of work: processing information and operations to implement its input-output. Because, in the model adopted in this course, everything that is done in a computing system is organized as a set of processes, these two types of work are performed by processes. Processes are involved in processing information and performing input/output operations.
The content of the concepts of “information processing” and “input-output operations” depends on the point of view from which we look at them. From a programmer’s point of view, “information processing” means the execution of processor commands on data stored in memory, regardless of the hierarchy level - in registers, cache, RAM or secondary memory. By “input/output operations” the programmer understands the exchange of data between memory and devices external to the memory and processor, such as magnetic tapes, disks, monitor, keyboard, timer. From the point of view of the operating system, “information processing” are only operations performed by the processor on data located in memory at a hierarchy level no lower than RAM. Everything else is referred to as "input/output operations". To perform operations on data temporarily located in secondary memory, operating system, first swaps them into RAM, and only then the processor performs the necessary actions.
Explaining what exactly a processor does when processing information, how it solves a problem, and what algorithm it executes is not the scope of our course. This rather refers to the course "Algorithms and Data Structures", with which the study of computer science usually begins. How operating system controls information processing, we discussed earlier, describing in detail two states of processes - execution(what’s the point of describing it?) and readiness(scheduling queues, etc.), as well as the rules by which processes are transferred from one state to another (process scheduling algorithms).
This lecture will be devoted to the second type of operation of a computing system - input-output operations. We will look at what happens in a computer when performing I/O operations, and how operating system manages their implementation. In this case, for simplicity, we will assume that the amount of RAM in the computer system is quite large, i.e. all processes are completely located in RAM, and therefore the concept of “input/output operation” from the point of view of the operating system and from the point of view of the user means one thing and also. This assumption does not reduce the generality of our consideration, since swapping information from secondary memory to RAM and back is usually built on the same principle as all I/O operations.
Before talking about the operation of the operating system when performing I/O operations, we will have to recall some information from the course “Modern Computer Architecture and Assembly Language” in order to understand how information is transferred between RAM and an external device and why it does not need to be redesigned to connect new devices to the computing system.
Physical principles of input-output organization
There are many different devices that can interact with the processor and memory: timers, hard drives, keyboards, displays, mice, modems, etc., up to display and input devices in aerospace simulators. Some of these devices can be built inside the computer case, some can be taken outside of it and communicate with the computer through various communication lines: cable, fiber optic, radio relay, satellite, etc. The specific set of devices and methods of connecting them are determined by the purposes of the functioning of the computing system, desires and financial capabilities of the user. Despite the variety of devices, managing their operation and information exchange with them are built on a relatively small set of principles, which we will try to analyze in this section.
Understanding Computer Architecture
In the simplest case, the processor, memory and numerous external devices are connected big amount electrical connections – lines, which are collectively called local highway computer. Inside local backbone lines used to transmit similar signals and intended to perform similar functions are usually grouped into tires. Moreover, the concept of a bus includes not only a set of conductors, but also a set of hard-coded protocols that define a list of messages that can be transmitted using electrical signals along these conductors. Modern computers have at least three buses:
- data bus, consisting of data lines and used to transfer information between the processor and memory, processor and input/output devices, memory and external devices;
- address bus, consisting of address lines and used to set the address of a memory cell or indicate an input/output device involved in information exchange;
- control bus, consisting of control lines local highway and lines of its state that determine behavior local backbone. In some architectural solutions, the status lines are moved from this bus to a separate status bus.
The number of lines included in the bus is usually called bit depth (width) of this tire. The width of the address bus, for example, determines maximum size RAM that can be installed in a computing system. The width of the data bus determines the maximum amount of information that can be received or transmitted over this bus at one time.
Information exchange operations are carried out with the simultaneous participation of all buses. Consider, for example, the actions that must be performed to transfer information from the processor to memory. In the simplest case, you need to perform three steps.
- On the address bus, the processor must set signals corresponding to the address of the memory cell into which information will be transferred.
- The processor must set signals on the data bus corresponding to the information that must be written to memory.
- After performing steps 1 and 2, signals corresponding to the write operation and memory work are set on the control bus, which will lead to the entry of the necessary information to the desired address.
Naturally, the above steps are necessary, but not sufficient when considering the operation of specific processors and memory chips. Specific architectural solutions may require additional actions: for example, setting signals on the control bus for partial use of the data bus (to transmit less information than the width of this bus allows); setting a trunk readiness signal after completion of writing to memory, allowing you to begin new operation, etc. However general principles memory write operations remain unchanged.
While memory can easily be thought of as a sequence of address-numbered cells located within a single chip or chipset, this approach does not apply to I/O devices. External devices are spatially separated and can be connected to local backbone at one point or many points called I/O ports. However, just as memory locations were mapped one-to-one into memory address space, I/O ports can be one-to-one mapped to another address space – . At the same time, each I/O port receives its number or address in this space. In some cases, when the memory address space (the size of which is determined by the width of the address bus) is not fully used (addresses remain that do not correspond to physical memory cells) and the protocols for working with an external device are compatible with the protocols for working with memory, part I/O ports can be mapped directly into the memory address space (this is what is done, for example, with the video memory of displays), however, then these ports are no longer usually called ports. It should be noted that when mapping ports into the memory address space to organize access to them, existing memory protection mechanisms can be fully used without organizing special protective devices.
In a direct mapping situation I/O ports into the memory address space, the actions required to write information and control commands to these ports or to read data from them and their states are no different from the actions performed to transfer information between RAM and the processor, and the same teams. If the port is displayed in I/O address space, then the information exchange process is initiated special teams I/O and includes several other actions. For example, to transmit data to a port, you must do the following: What exactly devices should do after receiving information through their port, and exactly how they should supply information to be read from the port, is determined by the electronic circuits of the devices, called controllers. The controller can directly control a single device (for example, a disk controller), or it can control several devices by communicating with their controllers via special I/O buses (IDE bus, SCSI bus, etc.).
Modern computing systems can have a diverse architecture, many buses and highways, bridges for transferring information from one bus to another, etc. For us now, only the following points are important.
- I/O devices are connected to the system through ports.
- There can be two address spaces: memory space and I/O space.
- Ports are typically shown in I/O address space and sometimes directly into the memory address space.
- The use of a particular address space is determined by the type of instruction executed by the processor or the type of its operands.
- Physical control of the I/O device, transmission of information through the port and setting of some signals on the highway is carried out by device controller.
It is the uniformity of connecting external devices to the computing system that is one of the components of the ideology that allows you to add new devices without redesigning the entire system.
