What is the one in the rent. What does the rent consist of, what is included in it and what are the standards

The rent is charged by the organization with which an agreement has been concluded for the provision of utilities in an apartment building, or powers are transferred to a single settlement center that calculates utility bills.

Often, the payer is faced with an overstated amount. He can check the charge on his own. But first you need to figure out what makes up the size of the payment for housing and communal services (HCS) and what factors affect it.

What is included in the rent?

Rent is a common concept that implies a mandatory monthly payment for housing and communal services. Its structure depends on whether the property is in personal use or rented out. According to Art. 154 LCD RF, the rent consists of:

For the employer	For the owner
	From the cost of maintaining the living quarters: Management, maintenance, current repairs and removal of solid waste; on the resources spent on the maintenance of general-purpose places.
	From the costs of individual consumption of resources (cold and hot water, electricity, heating, gas, water disposal)
From the hiring fee	From contributions for overhaul

According to Art. 153 LCD RF, to make utility bills is obliged to:

• the employer from the moment of signing the lease agreement;
• tenant;
• the developer from the moment of obtaining permission to put the house into operation.

Payment of rent for the basis of Art. 155 LCD RF must be made next to the month of service. However, a different payment term may be established in the contract for the provision of housing and communal services. In the absence of payments within 3 months for the purpose of collecting debts, the consumer can.

How the rent is calculated

The amount of payment for housing and communal services is not constant. It is influenced by factors:

• the number of people living;
• consumption volume;
• gasification of the house, on which it depends;
• area of ​​the room;
• utility tariffs;
• formalized benefits and subsidies;
• accrued interest.

Each factor, to one degree or another, affects the total amount charged for each line in the receipt.

Home repair and maintenance

The rate for this line is approved at a rate capable of maintaining common areas in good condition. In accordance with paragraph 7 of Art. 156 LCD RF, the fee is set by the general meeting of residents, taking into account the proposals of the Criminal Code, for at least 1 year. On the basis of clause 8 of Art. 156 of the Housing Code of the Russian Federation, the amount of contributions for owners in the HOA is set by the governing bodies.

ODN expenses

They are included in the article “Housing Maintenance”. In the absence of collective metering devices, the accrual will be made according to consumption standards. If available, the total cost is calculated by subtracting the individual consumption of all residents from the common household consumption, and then divided among all owners in proportion to the area they occupy.

Calculation of the amount for utilities

Their cost is a significant part of the total rent. The method of accrual depends on whether the meter is installed in the apartment or not.

According to meter readings

They are installed not only for water and electricity, but also for gas and even heating. To calculate the rent based on actual consumption, it is necessary on time (usually by the 25th of the current month).

In case of late transmission of readings, the fee will be charged based on the average consumption for the previous 3 or 6 months, and then according to the standards.

According to the standards

In the absence of metering devices, the price of consumed resources depends on the consumption standards, which are set either for one person (, gas,), or for 1 square meter of an apartment (). The final figure is calculated as the tariff multiplied by the number of people or the total area of ​​the premises and the standard.

In the event that there is no meter, and the technical capability for its installation is available, they are used when calculating the cost of resource consumption (water and light).

IMPORTANT! If no one is registered in the apartment, and there is no IPU, utility bills will be charged as per 1 registered person.

Hiring fees

It is influenced by: the location of the room, the area and the available amenities. Local authorities set a fee per 1m 2, and federal agencies - its maximum threshold.

The tariff can be changed no more than once a year. The organization that rents out housing must notify about this 3 months in advance.

Overhaul fee

ФЗ No 271 dated December 25, 2012 made significant changes to the Housing Code of the Russian Federation. Now the owners pay separate contributions for overhaul to a specialized fund. They are exempted from tenants of premises and owners of real estate c.

The collected funds are used to repair or replace, for example, elevator equipment. The fee is set on the basis of 1m 2, so its size directly depends on the total area of ​​the apartment.

Penalty

Penalty is a type of penalties charged for utility bills arrears. , from employees of settlement centers or in a bank on a personal account.

In accordance with paragraph 14 of Art. 155 LCD RF, the penalty interest depends:

• from the refinancing rate of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation (up to 90 days of delay - 1/300 of the rate, from 91 days - 1/130);
• from the amount of debt;
• from the number of days of delay.

Penalties are calculated for each day starting from the 31st day from the due date.

In a communal apartment

The neighbors must establish the procedure for paying for utility services in such an apartment on their own. The agreement must be made in writing and signed by all tenants. If the owners and tenants failed to agree on the method of accrual, the dispute between them is resolved in court.

Usually tenants, and each receives a separate receipt for payment of utilities. The rent in such apartments is calculated based on the occupied area or the number of people living.

IMPORTANT! A similar payment procedure can be established in a privatized apartment, which has several owners.

Reduction in the amount of rent

Citizens are interested in reducing the amount of payments. It is possible to reduce the amount of payment for housing and communal services in the following cases:

1. Installation of counters.

Paying for the actual consumption of resources is beneficial. Individual consumption is often significantly lower than the established standards. And if people are registered on the living space, but no one lives in it, the installation of meters will completely save you from payments for water, electricity and gas.

IMPORTANT! Even in the absence of registration, the owner is obliged to pay for heating, housing maintenance and overhaul.

2. Temporary absence.

To reduce the rent, you must provide documents proving temporary absence (more than 5 days):

• train / plane tickets;
• a copy of the certificate confirming the fact of a business trip;
• medical certificate of treatment in a hospital;
• certificate of temporary registration.

Recalculation of utility bills is appropriate in the absence of metering devices.

3. Registration of benefits and subsidies.

Some categories of the population are entitled to receive help from the state in the form of benefits and subsidies for paying for housing and communal services, which are a kind of discount. To do this, you need to collect a package of documents proving your right to receive state support and submit it to the district department of social protection.

4. Receiving substandard services and long interruptions in delivery.

Quality requirements are described in Appendix No. 1 of the "Rules for the Provision of Utilities", approved by the Resolution No. 354 of 05/06/2011... It also establishes the percentage by which the payment is reduced in various situations. For example, for each hour of exceeding the permissible duration of a break in the supply of water or heating, the cost is reduced by 0.15%.

In addition to reducing the rent, based on paragraph 4 of Art. 157 LCD RF an authorized company can be held accountable.

How to check the correctness of the calculation of utility bills

If it seems to you that the calculation of utility bills was made incorrectly, check in the receipt:

• Information about the number of citizens living.
• Specified area.
• Changes in consumption rates and tariffs, their validity and legality.
• The correctness of these meter readings, if any.
• The appearance of new payment lines.
• The presence of an amount to pay for non-rendered housing and communal services.

The procedure for calculating rent is described in detail in Appendix No. 2 PP No. 354 of May 6, 2011.

Rent calculator

For each region, a service has been developed that helps citizens to roughly calculate the amount of payment for housing and communal services. The user is required to:

• choose a place of residence;
• choose a billing period;
• indicate the area of ​​the apartment, the number of registered tenants and the type of house (MKD or private);
• select the type of resource (water, electricity, gas, etc.) and the method of calculation (meter or standard). Here the payment for general house needs will be calculated.

The service is convenient in that there is no need to look for consumption standards or established tariffs, they are entered automatically. However, the regional calculators do not calculate home maintenance fees and overhaul premiums.

Where to go if the rent is calculated incorrectly

Under the contract for the provision of housing and communal services, each party agrees to fulfill its obligations in good faith: the consumer is required to pay on time, from the responsible company - the provision of services of proper quality and the correct calculation of the rent.

If, during the verification of the correctness of the charge, an erroneously calculated amount was revealed, which, for example, is significantly higher than the payment for previous months, you need to contact:

1. To the company that calculates the fees: UK, HOA or EIRTs. Before contacting, check all the data on the receipt, especially the transmitted readings and tariffs. If an error is found through the fault of the tenant himself, he will be issued a new payment document or the amount paid will be credited in the following payments. If the overstatement of the amount was due to the fault of the authorized person, and the recalculation was refused, you should file a formal complaint with the higher authorities.

ADVICE! You can get advice on calculations and charges for housing and communal services by calling the hotline in the region.

1. To the state housing inspectorate. You need to complain to the inspection in case of deliberate misuse of the tariff or benefit.
2. To Rospotrebnadzor. The appeal is advisable when the incorrect charge is associated with the inadequate quality of the services provided or their failure to provide.
3. The prosecutor's office is the body that oversees the implementation of laws in force. During the inspection, the supervisory authority can issue an order to eliminate the violation, which is subject to mandatory implementation.
4. To court. Before applying to the courts, the plaintiff must collect evidence of the violation of his rights.

Responsibility for incorrect calculation of utility bills

If the fact of an overstatement of the amount of payment for housing and communal services is discovered, the responsible person pays in favor of the applicant, according to clause 6 of Art. 157 LCD RF, a fine of 50% of the excess rent.

The penalty is not charged when:

• the overcharging was due to the fault of the tenant;
• the violation was eliminated before payment of the payment document;
• the adjustment of the rent occurred before the receipt of the request to verify the correctness of the calculation.

Within 30 days from the date of receipt of the claim for compensation for an error in the calculation, the company providing housing and communal services must check the correctness of the calculation.

According to clause 7 of Art. 157, if a violation is found, the fine must be paid no later than two months from the date of receipt of the appeal. Payment is made by reducing the amount of rent or existing debt.

The rent consists of several elements, each of which is influenced by a number of factors, for example, tariffs and floor space. The payer can independently control his expenses and check charges using the approved calculation formulas or using the electronic service.

If there was an illegal accrual of utility bills, you must apply to the organization with which the contract for the provision of utility services has been concluded. If you are denied, you can get help from the higher authorities.

Is the foundation for any computer. Motherboards are found in desktops, laptops, tablets, and even smartphones. But, in this article we will study motherboards designed for use in regular desktop computers. We will take a look at the design of motherboards, as well as the main components of the motherboard.

The first thing that catches your eye after opening the lid of a desktop computer is the motherboard. It is the largest board inside the computer, and all other components are connected to it. Thus, the motherboard is the foundation of the computer, its foundation on which the computer is built.

Main components of a desktop motherboard

Socket for processor installation

A mounting slot is a rectangular slot on which the processor mounts. In most cases, the socket for installing the processor is located at the top of the motherboard, approximately in the middle of the board.

Sockets for installing a processor differ depending on the processor manufacturer (Intel or AMD), as well as depending on the specific processor model. There are no universal motherboards. A motherboard always supports only one type of processor. This should be taken into account when choosing a processor and board.

Information on supported processors can be found on the official website of the motherboard manufacturer.

Chipset

The chipset is the main component of the motherboard. Typically, the chipset is well below the processor. This is the largest microcircuit on the board and is covered with a heatsink.

The chipset is responsible for the operation of the entire board, as well as for the interaction of the processor with the rest of the computer components. It depends on the chipset model what capabilities the motherboard and the computer as a whole will have. Cheap motherboards have simple chipsets built into them that limit the functionality of the computer. For example, all Sandy Bridge processors have an integrated graphics accelerator, but only motherboards with the Z68 chipset can use this graphics accelerator.

When it is very important to take into account which chipset it is built on and what capabilities this or that chipset has.

In older computers, the chipset consists of two chips. These microcircuits are called north and south bridges. Starting with processors based on Intel Nehalem and AMD Sledgehammer architectures, northbridge capabilities are built right into the processor. Therefore, only one chip of the chipset is placed on the board.

RAM slots

These are long connectors to the right or either side of the processor. The board can have 2, 4, 8 or more slots for RAM. But, in most cases, the number of slots is small.

RAM slots can be of various types (DDR1, DDR2, DDR3). Before buying RAM, you need to know the type of supported memory, the number of slots on the motherboard, and the maximum amount of memory that the board supports. This information can be obtained on the official website of the board manufacturer.

Expansion slots

Expansion slots are slots at the bottom of the board. Unlike RAM slots, which are located vertically, expansion slots are located horizontally. In addition, cards installed in expansion slots are attached to them with a special screw.

There are currently only two types of expansion slots in use. These are PCI Express and PCI. into PCI Express slots. The rest of the cards (, TV tuners, etc.) can be installed in both PCI Express and PCI.

SATA connectors

Are connectors for connecting

Motherboard(from English. Motherboard) is one of the most important components of a computer, since it connects almost all the devices that make up its composition.

Any modern motherboard is multilayer and is made of fiberglass. Usually, for its manufacture, special layers of copper foil are used (the number of which can vary from 2 to 10), interconnected with the help of an insulating material - fiberglass impregnated with synthetic resin. The layers of copper are not solid, but are conductive paths connecting the electronic circuit mounted on such a board. The inner layers of the printed circuit board usually contain power lines and shielding from pickups and interference, and the outer layers - the main connections of the circuit elements.

The motherboard contains:

• Sets of large single-chip electronic microcircuits - chips (central processing unit, other processors, integrated device controllers and their interfaces)
• RAM microcircuits and connectors of their boards;
• Electronic logic microcircuits;
• Simple radio elements (transistors, capacitors, resistors, etc.);
• System bus;
• Slots for connecting expansion cards (video cards or video adapters, sound cards, network cards, peripheral device interfaces);
• I / O ports connectors.

On the motherboard, as a rule, there are already built-in (integrated) network and sound cards, there are USB and FireWire connectors for connecting external devices to the system unit. If we look at the board from the side, we will see the connectors on the back of the system unit for connecting additional external devices - a monitor, keyboard and mouse, network, audio and USB (1.1 / 2.0, 3.0) - devices, etc.

Depending on the size of the motherboard, the following motherboard form factors are distinguished. Form factor is the physical parameters of the board that determine the size of the computer case and affect the amount and type of hardware that can be connected to it. The form factor determines not only the dimensions of the motherboard, but also the place of its attachment to the case, the location of bus interfaces, I / O ports, processor socket and slots for RAM, as well as the type of connector for connecting the power supply.

Table 1 - Form factors of motherboards

Comparison of form factors of motherboards that are widely used

Motherboards with ATX (Advanced Technology Extended) form factor are installed in desktop computers with full-tower and mini-tower cases. This board is suitable for any PC user as well as for servers, thanks to which it has been mass-produced since 2001. The board can accommodate up to 7 slots for installing expansion cards.

Let's consider the main components of the motherboard, we will consider each of these positions in more detail below.

Motherboard appearance: 1 - processor socket; 2, 3 - MP chipset; 4 - socket for connecting random access memory (RAM) modules; 5 - connector for connecting hard disks, CD and DVD drives via a parallel interface; 6 - two PCI Express (PCIe) 16x slots (one of the slots operates in 4x mode) 7 - PCIe 1x slot; 8 - connector for SATA hard drives. 9 - three PCI slots; 10 - BIOS chip with battery; 11 - power supply connector; 12 - connectors for the rear wall of the MP (LPT; USB; S / PDIF-Out, COM, etc.).

Main motherboard manufacturers: Asus, GigaByte, Micro-Star International (MSI), Foxconn, Asrock, ElitGroup, Palit.

Chipset. North and South bridges

Chipset (ChipSet - set of chips) - the basis of the motherboard, is one or more microcircuits specially designed to ensure the interaction of the central processing unit (CPU - Central Processing Unit) with all other components of the computer. The chipset determines which processor can work on a given motherboard, the type, organization and maximum amount of used RAM (some modern processor models have built-in memory controllers), how many and which external devices can be connected to the computer.

The following companies are developing chipsets for motherboards: Intel, NVIDIA, AMD, VIA and SIS.

Most often, a chipset consists of 2 integrated circuits called north and south bridges. In the process of evolution of computer circuitry, the developers came to the following structure: a processor, then there is a connecting link or "bridge", which ensures the operation of the processor with random access memory (RAM) and a PCIe channel - "North Bridge", and then a block of controllers for interfaces of disk systems, serial and parallel ports, PCI-bus, USB, FireWire - "South Bridge".

A characteristic feature of the north bridge is the high (in comparison with the south bridge) processing speed and ensuring that most of the calculations are performed by the processor itself. Therefore, it is equipped with additional cooling: a passive radiator or a radiator with active cooling in the form of a small fan.

The south bridge controls the operation of slower devices, which are connected using IDE, SATA, USB, LAN, Embeded Audio, PCI, PCIe interfaces, providing the ability to transfer from them to the north bridge. The south bridge also ensures the normal operation of the BIOS chip.

Previously, the connection between the north and south bridges was carried out using the PCI interface, which was replaced by the Direct Media Interface (DMI) bus - a serial bus developed by Intel to connect the south bridge to the north bridge. DMI was first used in Intel 915 chipsets with ICH6 Southbridge in 2004. The first generation DMI bus has a bandwidth of 2 GB / s, which is significantly higher than the bandwidth of the Hub Link bus (266 MB / s) (replaced by PCI), which is used for communication between the north and south bridges in Intel 815/845 chipsets / 848/850/865/875. At the same time, the bandwidth of 2 GB / s (1 GB / s in each direction) is shared with other devices (for example, PCI Express x1, PCI, HD Audio, hard drives).

In motherboards for processors with an LGA 1155 socket (that is, for Core i3, Core i5 and some Core i7 and Xeon series) and with an integrated memory controller, DMI is used to connect the chipset (PCH) directly to the processor. (The LGA 1366 Core i7 series server processors are connected to the chipset via the QPI bus).

Processors and their characteristics

The processor is a crystal of ultrapure silicon on which, using a complex, multistage and ultra-precise process, several million transistors and other circuit elements are created, connected by special thin wires with external leads. He manages the system by performing logical and arithmetic operations. The speed of the computer depends on the power of the processor. Computer processors are manufactured by VIA, Cyrix and the two leaders Intel and AMD.

Sockets

To fix the processor on the motherboard, there is a special socket of the central processor (form factor) - socket (Socket) - a socket connector with a different number and type of contacts, designed for installing a central processor in it.

CPU socket LGA1150

Depending on the model of the motherboard, the socket connectors may differ, which is why not every type of processor will work with them. Older sockets for x86 processors are numbered in order of issue, usually one number (Socket 1-8). Later sockets were usually designated by numbers with the corresponding number of processor pins (pins) (Socket 370-479). Sockets differ in size, the number of legs, their type, for example, the processor manufacturer AMD has the legs in the processor itself, while Intel with socket 775 has no legs on the processor, but they are in the socket itself. It is also worth noting that only a certain type of processor is suitable for a certain socket, both by manufacturer and by processor model. But there are exceptions. For example, both an Intel Core 2 Duo and an Intel Core Quad processor are suitable for the LGA775 socket. The newer types of Intel i5, i6, i7 processors have a completely different LGA1150 socket, which will only fit the latest Haswell series of processors and its successor Broadwell. An AMD socket will not be compatible with Intel processors and vice versa.

Modern processors use the following connectors:

• Socket B (LGA 1366) - is made in 1366 contact form, supports processors Core i7 series 9xx, Xeon series 35xx to 56xx, Celeron P1053. Speed ​​characteristics from 1600 MHz to 3500 MHz.
• Socket Н (LGA 1156) - made using 1156 protruding contacts. Processors - Core i7, i5, i3, hybrid processors (CPU + GPU). Speed ​​characteristics from 2.1 GHz and higher. It is replaced by Socket H2 (LGA 1155), which supports Sandy Bridge and Ivy Bridge processors. The connector is made of 1155 pins. Produced since 2011. Speed ​​characteristics up to 20 GB / s.
• Socket R (LGA 2011) - designed to replace LGA 1366. The socket is made using 2011 pins. Supports Sandy Bridge E-series processor. Speeds from 19 GB / s to 25.6 GB / s.
• Socket H3 (LGA 1150) is a socket for Intel Haswell processors designed to replace LGA 1155 (Socket H2). LGA 1150 is suitable for Intel Haswell and Broadwell series processors.

The appearance of modern processor sockets developed by Intel: a - Socket B (LGA 1366); b - Socket H (LGA 1156); c - Socket R (LGA 2011)

Intel Server Sockets:

• Socket TW (LGA 1248) - Itanium, Socket LS processors
• (LGA 1567) - Processors - Xeon 75xx and 76xx series. Speeds from 19 GB / s to 25.6 GB / s.

• Socket AM2 + is identical to Socket AM2, the only difference is in the support of processors based on Agena and Toliman cores.
• Socket AM3 processors - AMD Phenom II X4 910, 810, 805 and AMD Phenom II X3 720 and 710.
• Socket FM1 - ​​socket for Llano processors.
• Socket FM2 - for Komodo, Trinity, Terrama, Sepang processors.

Appearance of modern processor sockets developed by AMD: a - Socket AM3; b - Socket AM3 +; c - Socket FM1

The main parameters that affect the performance of the processor include:

• Clock frequency;
• System bus frequency;
• Cache memory;
• Number of Cores.

Clock frequency- we can conventionally call one operation a tact. The unit is MHz and GHz (megahertz (10 6) and gigahertz (10 9)). 1 MHz - means that the processor can perform 10 6 operations per second. If you have a 4 GHz processor on your home computer, this means that it can perform 4 × 10 9 operations in 1 second (1Hz = 1 / sec).

System bus frequency- bus bandwidth, which links the processor to the chipset. The system bus is a specific set of signal lines that connect the processor with other components of the system unit. For Intel processors, the FSB bus was previously widespread, but in new processor models it was replaced by the QPI bus, which operates at frequencies above 1333 MHz. In AMD processors, the system bus is the Hyper Transport bus. The frequency of this bus is over 1600 MHz. An important fact is that the higher the system bus frequency, the higher the processor performance. Since the frequency of the processor is the frequency of the system bus, multiplied by the processor by a certain value "multiplication factor" inherent in it.

Cache is ultra-fast memory that allows the processor to quickly access certain frequently used data loaded from RAM. The cache of modern processors significantly improves their performance.

There are 1, 2, 3 levels cache:

• The first level cache is the fastest, but its size is very limited. It operates at the frequency of the processor, and, in general, it can be accessed every clock cycle. The most common is the ability to perform multiple read / write operations at the same time. Latency (latency) of access is usually equal to 2-4 core clock cycles. The volume is usually small, no more than 384 KB;
• The L2 cache is slightly slower, but at the same time slightly larger in volume (from 128 KB to 1-12 MB)
• The L3 cache is slightly slower than the L1 and L2 cache, but still significantly faster than RAM. The cache size of the third level reaches 12-24 MB.

The limited amount of cache memory is due to its high cost due to the complex production process.

Number of Cores

A multi-core processor consists of two or more "computational cores" on a single die. It has one case and is installed in one slot on the computer's motherboard, but the operating system treats each of its computing cores as a separate processor with a full set of computing resources.

Today the main manufacturers of processors - Intel and AMD recognized that further increase in the number of processor cores is one of the priority areas for increasing their performance. Back in 2011, they mastered the production of 8-core processors for home computers, and 16-core processors for server systems.

The bit depth of the processor is a value that determines the size of the machine word, that is, the amount of information that the processor exchanges with the main memory. There are x86 architecture 32-bit and x64 - 64-bit.

Technological process

The technological process (technical process) in 1979 was 3 microns, but later (after 2002) reached nanometer sizes - 90-32 nm (1nm = 10 -9 m). A decrease in the technical process leads to an increase in the number of electronic components (transistors) on the chip, and due to their small size, the power consumption of the system decreases.

Today, Moore's law is no longer completely fulfilled, which in 1965. noted that every two years the number of transistors on a chip will double. Problems in creating a new technical process associated with methods of obtaining miniature components, preserving the properties of the material (the manifestation of "size effects" interferes - when the material, due to its small geometric dimensions, changes its physical properties), the search for new nanomaterials, heat removal, additional interference, noise.

In 2012, Intel announced the first wave of next-generation processors called Ivy Bridge. The first batch consisted of 13 quad-core chips made according to the 22-nm technological process with three-dimensional Tri-Gate transistors. New items were distributed between the Core i5 and i7 lines. Later (2015), these processor lines were transferred to a more modern 14 nm process technology. According to the plans of manufacturers, the next, 10-nm technical process is planned for implementation in 2018.

Generation of processors differ from each other in speed, architecture, performance and appearance. Moreover, they differ not only quantitatively, but also qualitatively. So, during the transition from Pentium to Pentium II and then - to Pentium III (IV), the system of instructions (instructions) of the processor was significantly expanded, the number of transistors was increased, etc. If we consider the Intel corporation, then over the entire 32-year history of the processors of this company, 12 generations have changed: 8088, 286, 386, 486, Pentium, Pentium II - Pentium III, Pentium 4, Core 2 Duo, Core i3, Core i5, Core i7 ... Each generation has modifications that differ from each other in purpose and price. For example, in the Pentium IV family there were three types - the older one, Heon, works in servers. The middle one, the Pentium IV itself, is used in desktop computers and the cheap Celeron is used in budget computers. Reducing the price is achieved by cutting the L2 cache by half, lowering the frequency of the system bus. Cache memory is the most expensive element in a processor, and as its size increases, the cost of a die increases exponentially. For example, the cache of the second level Heon (2.4 MB), Pentium IV - 256-2048KB, and Celeron only 128-256KB.

The situation is similar in the AMD processor family. For expensive desktops Phenom, Athlon, and for inexpensive home PCs - Sempron. Within one generation and modification, everything is clear: the higher the clock speed, the faster the processor.

Computer bus

All components that are placed on the motherboard are connected by special loops (buses). A computer bus is used to transfer data between individual functional blocks of a computer and is a collection of signal lines that have certain electrical characteristics and information transfer protocols. Buses can differ in length, signal transmission method (serial or parallel, synchronous or asynchronous), bandwidth, number and types of supported devices, protocol of operation, purpose (internal or interface).

The buses are divided into three groups depending on the type of data being transmitted:

• Bus address (for data addressing);
• Data bus (for data exchange);
• Control bus (for data management).

The main characteristics of the tire:

1. The bus width is a value that shows how many data bits can be passed by the bus in one clock cycle.
2. Bus bandwidth - shows how many bits of information are transmitted by the bus in 1 second.

The system bus (FSB-Front Side Bus) is a bus that connects the CPU with other devices via the north bridge.

The Quad-Pumped Bus (QPB) is a 64-bit processor bus that allows the Intel processor to communicate with the northbridge of the chipset. Its characteristic feature is the transmission of four data blocks (from two address blocks) per cycle. Thus, for a FSB frequency of 200 MHz, the effective data transfer frequency will be equivalent to 800 MHz (4x200 MHz).

The HyperTransport (HT) bus is a bi-directional serial bus developed by a consortium of companies led by AMD and is used to connect the AMD K8 processor family with each other, as well as with the chipset. In addition, many modern chipsets use HT for inter-bridge communication.

This NT bus has found a place in high-performance network devices - routers and switches. A characteristic feature of the NT bus is its organization according to the Peer-to-Peer scheme (point-to-point), which provides high speed of data exchange with low latency.

Motherboard connectors

Around the perimeter of the board there are a large number of special connectors in the form of slots. They are designed to connect expansion cards.

PCI slots - have long been the standard for connecting audio, sound and network cards, TV tuners, Wi-Fi adapters. However, newer and faster PCIe buses have since emerged. Today, some motherboards support both of these interfaces, but PCI support is becoming less common.

PCI and PCIe slots

SATA and PATA (ATA (IDE)) connectors are available for hard drives and DVD / CD drives. They are easy to distinguish by their appearance (SATA - small, PATA - wide, multi-pin), both on the device itself and on the motherboard. Despite the new standard (SATA), some motherboards are still equipped with the old ATA (IDE) interface. But over time, his support will probably end completely, given the irrelevance.

Random access memory is used by the processor for short-term storage of information while it performs various operations. The more programs are simultaneously open and processed by the processor, the more RAM is used for this.

There are separate slots for RAM. As a result of its development and improvements, there are several types of memory: DDR1, DDR2, DDR3, DDR4. The larger the ending digit, the more productive the memory is.

Each of them has its own connector for connection, and accordingly each motherboard is designed to support only one of its types. That is, each type of memory is not interchangeable. The figure shows the differences in the location of the gaps in the connectors of various types of RAM.

Comparison of different types of RAM

And the last connector we reviewed is used to connect the power supply to the motherboard. This connector has hardly changed since the first ATX motherboard. They just added a few pins to supply additional power to modern powerful processors.

The appearance of the new connector for connecting power to the motherboard
Exterior view of the old connector for connecting power to the motherboard