What is electronics? Prospects for its development. Basic concepts of electronic technology

And radar , which was widely used during the Second World War .

But vacuum tubes had significant drawbacks. First of all, these are large sizes and high power consumption (which was critical for portable devices). Therefore, solid-state electronics began to develop, and diodes and transistors began to be used as the element base.

The further development of electronics is associated with the advent of computers. Transistor-based computers were characterized by large size and power consumption, as well as low reliability (due to the large number of parts). To solve these problems, microassemblies began to be used, and then microcircuits. The number of microcircuit elements gradually increased, microprocessors began to appear. Currently, the development of electronics is facilitated by the emergence of cellular communications, as well as various wireless devices, navigators, communicators, tablets, etc.

The main milestones in the development of electronics can be considered:

• the invention of A. S. Popov radio (May 7, 1895), and the beginning of the use of radios,
• Lee de Forest's invention of the tube triode, the first amplifying element,
• Losev's use of a semiconductor element for amplifying and generating electrical signals,
• development of solid state electronics,
• the use of conductive and semiconductor elements (works by Ioffe, Schottky),
• the invention of the transistor in 1947 (William Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain),
• the creation of the integrated circuit and the subsequent development of microelectronics, the main field of modern electronics.

Areas of electronics

The following areas of electronics can be distinguished:

• physics (microworld, semiconductors, electromagnetic waves, magnetism, electric current, etc.) - a field of science in which the processes occurring with charged particles are studied,
• consumer electronics - consumer electronic devices and devices that use electrical voltage, electric current, electric field or electromagnetic waves. (For example, a TV, mobile phone, iron, light bulb, electric stove, .. etc.).
• Energy - generation, transportation and consumption of electricity, high power electrical appliances (for example, an electric motor, an electric lamp, a power plant), an electrical heating system, a power line.
• Microelectronics - electronic devices in which microcircuits are used as active elements:
  • optoelectronics - devices that use electric current and photon fluxes,
  • audio-video equipment - devices for amplifying and converting sound and video images,
  • digital microelectronics - devices based on microprocessors or logic circuits. For example: electronic calculator, computer, digital TV, mobile phone, printer, robot, control panel of industrial equipment, means of transport, and other household and industrial devices.

Many scientific disciplines of technical universities are devoted to the study of various aspects of electronics.

Solid state electronics

History of solid state electronics

The term solid-state electronics appeared in the literature in the middle of the 20th century to refer to devices based on a semiconductor element base: transistors and semiconductor diodes, which replaced bulky low-efficiency electric vacuum devices - radio tubes. The root "solid" is used here because the process of controlling the electric current takes place in a solid body of a semiconductor, as opposed to a vacuum, as it did in a vacuum tube. Later, at the end of the 20th century, this term lost its meaning and gradually fell out of use, since almost all the electronics of our civilization began to use exclusively semiconductor solid-state active element base.

Miniaturization of devices

With the birth of solid-state electronics, a revolutionary rapid process of miniaturization of electronic devices began. For several decades, active elements have decreased ten billion times - from a few centimeters of an electronic radio tube to several nanometers of a transistor integrated on a semiconductor chip.

Technology for obtaining elements

Active and passive elements in solid-state electronics are created on a homogeneous ultra-pure semiconductor crystal, most often silicon, by injection or deposition of new layers in certain coordinates of the crystal body of atoms of other chemical elements, more complex molecules, including organic substances. Injection changes the properties of a semiconductor at the site of injection (doping) by changing its conductivity to reverse, thus creating a diode or transistor or passive element: resistor, conductor, capacitor or inductor, insulator, heat sink and other structures. In recent years, the technology of producing light sources on a chip has become widespread. A huge number of discoveries and developed technologies for the use of solid state technologies are still in the safes of patent holders and are waiting in the wings.

The technology for obtaining semiconductor crystals, the purity of which allows you to create elements with a size of several nanometers, began to be called nanotechnology, and the section of electronics - microelectronics.

The next stage in the evolution of electronics will probably be optoelectronics, in which the carrier element will be a photon, which is much more mobile, less inertial than an electron / "hole" in a semiconductor of solid-state electronics.

Basic Solid State Devices

The main solid-state active devices used in electronic devices are:

• Diode - a conductor with one-way conduction from the anode to the cathode. Varieties: tunnel diode, avalanche-span diode, Gunn diode, Schottky diode, etc.;
• Bipolar transistors - transistors with two physical p-n junctions, the Collector-Emitter current of which is controlled by the Base-Emitter current;
• Field-effect transistor - a transistor, the Source-Drain current of which is controlled by the Voltage at the p-n- or n-p-junction Gate-Drain or the potential on it in transistors without a physical transition - with a gate galvanically isolated from the Drain-Source channel;
• Diodes with controlled conductivity dinistors and thyristors, used as switches, light-emitting diodes and photodiodes used as converters of e / m radiation into electrical signals or electrical energy or vice versa;
• Integrated circuit - a combination of active and passive solid-state elements on one or more crystals in one package, used as a module, an electronic circuit in analog and digital microelectronics.

Examples of using

Examples of the use of solid state devices in electronics:

• Voltage multiplier on a rectifier diode;
• Frequency multiplier on a non-linear diode;
• Emitter follower (voltage) on a bipolar transistor;
• Collector amplifier (power) on a bipolar transistor;
• Inductance emulator on integrated circuits, capacitors and resistors;
• Input resistance converter on a field or bipolar transistor, on an integrated circuit of an operational amplifier in analog and digital microelectronics;
• Electric signal generator on a field diode, Schottky diode, transistor or integrated circuit in AC signal generators;
• Voltage rectifier on a rectifier diode in alternating electric current circuits in a variety of devices;
• A source of stable voltage on a zener diode in voltage stabilizers;
• A source of stable voltage on a rectifier diode in the base-emitter voltage bias circuits of a bipolar transistor;
• Light-emitting element in a lighting device on a LED;
• Light-emitting element in optoelectronics based on LED;
• Light-receiving element in optoelectronics on a photodiode;
• Light-receiving element in solar panels of solar power plants;
• Power amplifier on a bipolar or field-effect transistor, on an integrated circuit, Power amplifier in the output stages of signal power amplifiers, AC and DC;
• Logic element on a transistor, diodes or on an integrated circuit of digital electronics;
• Memory cell on one or more transistors in memory chips;
• High-frequency amplifier on a transistor;
• Digital signal processor on an integrated circuit of a digital microprocessor;
• Analog signal processor based on transistors, analog microprocessor integrated circuit or operational amplifiers;
• Computer peripherals based on integrated circuits or transistors;
• The input stage of an operational or differential amplifier on a transistor;
• Electronic key in signal switching circuits on a field-effect transistor with an insulated gate;
• Electronic key in schemes with memory on the Schottky diode.

Main differences between analog and digital electronics

Since analog and digital circuits encode information differently, they also have different signal processing processes. It should be noted that all operations that can be performed on an analog signal (in particular, amplification, filtering, range limitation, etc.) can also be carried out using digital electronics and software simulation methods in microprocessors.

The main difference between analog and digital electronics can be found in the most characteristic ways of encoding information for a particular electronics.

Analog electronics uses the simplest proportional one-dimensional coding - the reflection of the physical parameters of the information source into similar physical parameters of the electric field or voltage (amplitudes into amplitudes, frequencies into frequencies, phases into phases, etc.).

Digital electronics uses n-dimensional encoding of the physical parameters of the data source. Minimum in digital electronics, two-dimensional coding is used: voltage (current) and moments of time. This redundancy is accepted solely for guaranteed data transmission with any programmable level of noise and distortion added in the device to the original signal. In more complex digital circuits, methods of software microprocessor processing of information are used. Digital data transmission methods make it possible to actually create physical data transmission channels with absolutely no loss (no increase in noise and other distortions)

In the physical sense, the behavior of any digital electronic circuit and the entire device is no different from the behavior of an analog electronic device or circuit and can be described by the theory and rules that describe the functioning of analog electronic devices.

Noise

In accordance with the way information is encoded in analog circuits, they are much more vulnerable to noise than digital circuits. A small signal change can make significant modifications to the transmitted information and ultimately lead to its loss; in turn, digital signals take on only one of two possible values, and in order to cause an error, the noise must be about half of their total value. This property of digital circuits can be used to increase the resistance of signals to interference. In addition, noise countermeasures are provided by means of signal recovery at each logic gate, which reduce or eliminate interference; such a mechanism is made possible by the quantization of digital signals. As long as the signal remains within a certain range of values, it is associated with the same information.

Noise is one of the key factors affecting signal accuracy; this is mainly the noise present in the original signal and the interference introduced during its transmission (see Signal-to-noise ratio). Fundamental physical limitations - for example, the so-called. "shot" noise in components - set limits on the resolution of analog signals. In digital electronics, additional accuracy is provided by the use of auxiliary bits that characterize the signal; their number depends on the performance of the analog-to-digital converter (ADC).

Complexity of development

Analog circuits are more difficult to design than comparable digital circuits; this is one of the reasons why digital systems have become more widespread than analog systems. The analog circuit is designed by hand, and the process of creating it provides less scope for automation. It should be noted, however, that in order to interact with the environment in one form or another, a digital electronic device needs an analog interface. For example, a digital radio has an analog preamplifier, which is the first link in the receiving chain.

Schema typology

At present, it is difficult to find such an electronic circuit that would be completely analog. Now analog circuits use digital or even microprocessor technologies to increase their performance. Such a circuit is usually called not analog or digital, but mixed. In some cases, it is difficult to make a clear distinction between continuous and discrete circuits - due to the fact that both of them include elements of both a linear and non-linear nature. An example is, say, a comparator: while receiving a continuous voltage range at the input, it at the same time produces only one of two possible signal levels at the output, like a digital circuit. Similarly, an overloaded transistor amplifier can take on the properties of a controlled switch that also has two output levels.

Digital Circuits

Digital circuits include circuits based on a number of discrete voltage levels. They represent the most typical physical implementation of Boolean algebra and form the elemental basis of all digital computers. The terms "digital circuit", "digital system" and "logic circuit" are often considered as synonymous. For digital circuits, as a rule, a binary system with two voltage levels is characteristic, which correspond to a logical zero and a logical one, respectively. Often the first corresponds to low voltage, and the second to high, although there are also reverse options. Ternary logical circuits (that is, with three possible states) were also studied, and attempts were made to build computers based on them. In addition to computers, digital circuits form the basis of electronic clocks and programmable logic controllers (used to control industrial processes); another example would be

At the junction of such scientific branches as physics and technology, electronics was born. If we consider it in a narrow sense, then we can say that it is engaged in the study of the interaction of electrons and the electromagnetic field, as well as the creation of devices based on this knowledge. What are these devices and how is the science of electronics developing today?

jump

Today is the age of information technology. All that we receive from the outside must be processed, stored and transmitted. All these processes occur with the help of electronic devices of various types. The deeper a person plunges into the fragile world of electrons, the grander his discoveries and, accordingly, the created electronic devices.

You can find enough information about what electronics is and how this science developed. After studying it, you come in amazement - how quickly technology has developed, what a rapid leap this industry has made in a short period of time.

As a science, it began to take shape in the 20th century. This happened with the beginning of the development of the element base of radio engineering and radio electronics. The second half of the last century was marked by the development of cybernetics and computers. All this stimulated interest in this area. If at the beginning of its development one computer could occupy a whole room of considerable size, today we have microtechnologies that can turn all our ideas about the world around us upside down.

Surprisingly, perhaps in the near future it will be possible to talk about what electronics is in the context of historical basic knowledge. Technology is minimizing every day. Their service life is increased. All this surprises us less and less. Such natural processes are associated with Moore's law and are carried out using silicon. Already today people are talking about an alternative to electronics - spintronics. And also everyone knows the developments in the field of nanoelectronics.

Development and problems

So, what is electronics and what problems in the development of devices does this branch of science have? As it was said, electronics is an industry created at the intersection of physics and technology. It explores the processes of formation of charged particles and control of the motion of free electrons in various media such as solids, vacuum, plasma, gas and at their boundaries. This science also develops methods for creating electronic devices for various spheres of human life. Not the last place is occupied by research on problems associated with the development of science: rapid obsolescence, ethical issues, research and experimentation, costs, and much more.

In the daily life of any modern person, the question "What is electronics?" will come as no surprise. His life is literally crammed with electronic devices: watches, washing machines and other household appliances, built-in appliances in cars and other vehicles, audio and video equipment, televisions, telephones, robots, medical devices and equipment, and so on. This list can be continued for a very long time.

Area of ​​development and application

Traditionally, electronics is divided into two areas: the development of the element base and the design of electronic circuits. represents various characteristics. It is divided into class and solid state electronics. In electrical circuits, the element base consists of devices for using, recording and processing electrical signals. The processed signal is reproduced in a convenient form (monitor screen, TV, sound, and so on). The signal can be recorded on a storage medium and played back at any time, control automatic systems, servo drives and other devices.

Electronic circuits are presented in analog and digital form. Analog amplifies and processes an analog signal. For example, radio waves. Digital circuits are designed to work with a signal of quantum nature. These are computers, controllers and many other devices.

Electronics and nanoelectronics today no longer surprise as it was at the very beginning of the emergence of such technologies. What once seemed like science fiction has become commonplace in the modern world. The speed of development is so great that the devices do not have time to grow old, as they already become irrelevant.

But such sciences as electronics and nanoelectronics are connected by microelectronics, which dates back to 1958, since the creation of microcircuits, which include two resistors and four transistors. Further development followed the path of minimizing and simultaneously increasing the number of components, such as transistors. Nanoelectronics is engaged in the development of integrated circuits, the topological norm of which is less than 100 nm.

Is there a limit to technology development?

As you can see, electronics is a basic science for the development of sophisticated modern technologies. There are already rumors that flexible electronics have been developed that make it possible to print using molten metal.

It has not yet received mass distribution, but scientists have achieved significant success in this area. There is no doubt - soon the consumer market will know what flexible electronics is.

Determining the boundaries of technology development, which began in the 20th century, is hardly possible today. Various sciences are merging, electronic biotechnologies, artificial intelligence and much more are developing. 3D printing has already been successfully applied, and in North Carolina they presented a very ambitious technology for such printing using molten metal. New technology can be easily implemented in any production of equipment.

Minsk State Higher

Aviation College

Dudnikov I. L.

AVIATION ELECTRONICS

PART 1

Teaching aid

BBC 39.52-051-04

I. L. DUDNIKOV,

candidate of technical sciences, associate professor

Reviewer

A. G. Klyuev

Candidate of Technical Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of Economics and Economics

The teaching aid for the course "Aviation Electronics" is intended for students (cadets) of the specialty 1-37 04 02 "Technical operation of aviation equipment" (specialization 1-37 04 02-01). It contains theoretical information on the element base of electronics and circuitry, a list of recommended literature.

© MGVAK, 2011

SECTION 1 ELEMENTAL BASE OF ELECTRONICS

Introduction. Definition of "Electronics"

Electronics is a field of science and technology that deals with the creation and practical use of various devices and devices, the operation of which is based on the change in concentration and movement of charged particles (electrons) in vacuum, gas or solid crystalline bodies.

Electronics, especially closely related to radio engineering, was called radio electronics (radio communication and television).

Radio electronics is one of the extremely rapidly developing branches of science, technology, and the national economy. The complexity of electronic equipment increases 10 times every 5 years. There is a continuous replacement of some devices by others, more advanced. Previously, the capabilities of vacuum tubes seemed perfect, but semiconductor devices with even greater capabilities have appeared. What was inaccessible to electron tubes (high mechanical strength, small size, durability) became available to semiconductor devices.

Electronics is increasingly being used in almost all areas of science and technology, due to the high sensitivity, speed, versatility and small dimensions of electronic devices.

1. High sensitivity of electronic devices is provided by various amplifying circuits. Sensitivity of electronic devices can be achieved: current 10 -17 A, voltage
10 -13 V and power 10 -24 watts.

2. Speed ​​is determined by the very nature of electrical oscillations. This parameter is steadily increasing due to the microminiaturization of elements and devices in general.

3. Universality is due to the possibility of converting all types of energy (mechanical, thermal, light, radiant, sound, chemical) into electrical energy, on the change and transformation of which the operation of all electronic circuits is based.

Without electronics, the use of aviation, spacecraft and cybernetic devices, space and astronomical research, automation of scientific research and production processes, computer technology, radio communications and television, systems for recording and reproducing information and many other achievements of modern science and technology would be impossible.

Electronic devices are widely used in communications technology (broadcasting, television); in measuring technology; in transport (road, rail, water transport); in medicine and biology (research, diagnostic, medical equipment); in industry and agriculture, i.e., in almost all areas of human activity, electronic devices are very widely and successfully used.

The field of electronics, which deals with the use in industry, transport and agriculture of various electronic devices that allow the control, regulation and management of production processes is called industrial electronics.

Industrial electronics is unthinkable outside of radio engineering and radio electronics, which were the starting point for it.

Industrial electronics includes:

1. Information electronics, which includes electronic systems and devices related to the measurement, control and management of industrial facilities and technological processes.

2. Power electronics (converting technology) associated with the conversion of the type of electric current for the purposes of electric drive, welding, electric traction, electrothermy, etc.

3. Electronic technology - exposure to matter by electron beams, plasma.

Radio electronics is based on the greatest discovery of the electromagnetic field, associated with the name of prominent scientists: M. Faraday, who discovered the law of electromagnetic induction (1831), J. Maxwell, who created the theory of the electromagnetic field (1865), G. Hertz, who was the first to experimentally obtain electromagnetic waves (1887).

Depending on the element base used, four main generations of the development of industrial electronics and electronic devices can be distinguished:

1st generation(1904 - 1950) - the main elemental base of electronic devices was electrovacuum devices.

II generation(1950 - early 60s) - the use of discrete semiconductor devices as the main element base.

III generation electronic devices (1960 - 1980) is associated with the development of microelectronics. Integrated circuits and microassemblies became the basis of the element base of electronic devices.

IV generation(from 1980 to the present) is characterized by further microminiaturization of electronic devices based on the use of LSI and VLSI.

The criterion of scientific and technological progress is currently considered to be the degree of use of electronic equipment in various fields of human activity, which makes it possible to sharply increase the productivity of physical and mental labor, improve the technical and economic indicators of production and comprehensively solve such problems that cannot be solved by other means.

Element base- these are separate parts or modules, which are permanent connection schemes pre-assembled from separate parts. The element base is divided into three groups of elements:

Active (transistors, vacuum tubes);

Converting (cathode ray tubes);

Passive (resistors, inductances, capacitances, transformers, chokes).

When talking about electronic technology, the idea of ​​​​beautiful, convenient installations and devices that we deal with in everyday life arises in the imagination. Indeed, it is difficult to imagine a time when there was no variety of audio and video equipment, computers, electronic watches, electric musical instruments, etc. A huge amount of electronic equipment is used in various industries, radio engineering, agriculture, aviation, astronautics, medicine, navigation and in military developments.

Currently, electronic technology is also understood as devices and devices based on electronic flows and their interaction with matter and electromagnetic fields.

Electronic devices are the basis of electronic devices.

Electronic devices are elementary electronic devices that perform certain functions. Distinguish between electrovacuum and solid-state electronic devices.

Vacuum electronic devices include vacuum tubes, cathode ray tubes and other electrovacuum and gas discharge devices (magnetrons, photomultiplier tubes, electron-optical converters, etc.).

Solid-state devices and devices include semiconductor diodes, transistors, thyristors, light-emitting diodes, photodiodes, semiconductor lasers, integrated circuits, devices for generating electrical current and voltage pulses, etc.

Electronic technology is also understood as a variety of electronic devices associated with the use of elementary electronic devices, ranging from simple amplifiers to complex computers. A special place is occupied by electronic devices associated with the formation, recognition and conversion of radio signals. Radioelectronics is engaged in their study and description.

Typical is the field of electronics, which includes impulse devices and electronic devices associated with digital and computer technology.

The sections of electronics devoted to methods of studying physical phenomena, measurements of physical quantities, characteristics and parameters of electronic devices, as well as electrical circuits and electromagnetic fields related to them, are also specific. Instruments that measure parameters and study processes occurring in electrical circuits and devices are called electronic measuring instruments.

All this leads to a conclusion. that: "Electronic engineering (electronics) is a field of science and technology associated with the study and implementation of physical properties, research methods and practice of using devices based on the interaction of electrons with electric and magnetic fields in a vacuum or a solid."

Elements of electronic engineering are electronic devices and devices manufactured by the industry that perform certain functions. Elements of electronic technology are, as it were, bricks from which more complex electronic devices are constructed. The basic or main elements of electronic technology are resistors, capacitors, diodes, transistors, microcircuits, etc.

Active elements of electronic technology (light-emitting diodes, lasers, optocouplers, control microcircuits) are also called electronic elements, emphasizing the possibility of performing certain functions by them.

The element base of electronic technology is the main set of electronic elements used in the industrial production of complex electronic equipment at this historical stage.

Analog electronics is an electronic technique that works with continuous signals (continuously changing voltages and currents). Analog electronic devices include amplifiers, mixers, frequency converters, filters, voltage, current, frequency stabilizers, as well as harmonic oscillation generators.

Pulse electronics is an electronic technique that works with pulsed signals (single voltage and current pulses or pulse sequences). Examples of pulse devices are pulse amplifiers and generators, voltage-frequency converters, etc.

Digital electronics is an electronic technique that works with individual (discrete) values ​​of voltages (currents, frequencies), presented in the form of numbers. Digital electronics devices include logical devices that operate with signals 0 and 1, analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog converters, microprocessors, personal computers, complex computing devices. Digital electronics is closely related to pulse technology, since the signals in it are transmitted by sequences of pulses.

The entire line of electronic technology depends on the applied element base, the development of which is devoted to the works of many scientists, their research and inventions. The path of development of electronic technology can be conditionally divided into several stages, the beginning of which is from the moment of discovery of electricity and its further study.

The purpose of this work is to trace this path in more detail, to get acquainted with the basics of the operation of electronic devices and devices, their appearance in the process of researching various properties of electricity and phenomena by scientists and physicists of different eras.

Any complex electronic device consists of simpler active and passive components. Active elements include transistors, diodes, vacuum tubes, microcircuits capable of amplifying electrical signals in terms of power; passive radio components are resistors, capacitors, transformers. Let's analyze the stages of the formation of electronics in a historical context

The history of the development of electronics can be roughly divided into four periods. The first period refers to the end of the 19th century. During this period, the main physical laws of the operation of electronic devices were discovered or deciphered from ancient sources, and various phenomena were discovered that stimulated their development and use. The beginning of the development of lamp technology is considered to be the discovery by the Russian scientist electrical engineer A.N. Lodygin of an ordinary incandescent lamp.

On its basis, already in 1883, the American engineer T. A. Edison discovered and described thermionic emission phenomenon and the passage of an electric current through a vacuum. Russian physicist A. G. Stoletov in 1888 discovered the basic laws of the photoelectric effect. The most important role in the development of electronics was played by the discovery by Russian scientists in 1895 by A. S. Popov opportunities transmission of radio waves over a distance. This discovery gave a huge impetus to the development and implementation of various electronic devices in practice; so there was a demand for devices for generating, amplifying and detecting electrical signals.

The second stage in the history of electronics development covers the first half of the 20th century. This period is characterized by the development and improvement of electrovacuum devices and a systematic study of their physical properties. In 1904, the simplest was made two-electrode vacuum tube - diode, which has found the widest application in radio engineering for the detection of electrical oscillations. Just a few years later, in 1907, three-electrode lamp - triode, amplification of electrical signals. In Russia, the first samples of lamps were made in 1914-1915. under the direction of N. D. Papaleksi and M. A. Bonch-Bruevich.

But the First World War, unleashed by the British and Germans, prevented work on the creation of new types of vacuum tubes. After the coup d'état paid for by the Anglo-Saxons in 1917, despite the most difficult financial condition, the domestic radio engineering industry began to be created. In 1918, the Nizhny Novgorod radio laboratory began to operate under the leadership of M. A. Bonch-Bruevich - the first research institution on radio and electrovacuum technology. Already in the hardest year for the country in 1919, the laboratory produced the first samples of domestic receiving and amplifying radio tubes, and in 1921 the first powerful water-cooled vacuum tubes were developed. A significant contribution to the development of electric vacuum technology and mass production of radio tubes was made by the team of the Leningrad Electric Lamp Plant built in 1922, later called "Svetlana".

Subsequently, the development of electrovacuum devices for amplifying and generating electrical oscillations proceeded in seven-mile steps. The development of hectometric (X=1000-f-100 m) and decameter (A=100-10 m) waves by radio engineering required the development of high-frequency lamps. In 1924 were invented four-electrode lamps (tetrodes), in 1930 - five-electrode ( pentodes), in 1935 - multigrid frequency-converting lamps ( heptodes). In the 30s and early 40s, along with the improvement of conventional lamps, lamps were developed for decimeter (A-100-n 10 cm) and centimeter (A \u003d 10h-1 cm) waves - magnetrons, klystrons, traveling wave lamps.

In parallel with the development of electronic devices, cathode-beam, photoelectric, and ion devices were created, to the creation of which Russian engineers made a significant contribution. By the mid-1930s, tube electronics had basically formed. The development of electrovacuum technology in subsequent years followed the path of reducing the dimensions of devices, improving their parameters and characteristics, increasing the operating frequency, and increasing reliability and durability.

The history of the development of electronics. Third period refers to the late 40s and early 50s, characterized by the rapid development of discrete semiconductor devices. The development of semiconductor electronics was preceded by work in the field of solid state physics. Great merit in the study of semiconductor physics belongs to the school of Soviet physicists, headed for a long time by Academician A. F. Ioffe. Theoretical and experimental studies of the electrical properties of semiconductors, carried out by Soviet scientists A. F. Ioffe, I. V. Kurchatov, V. P. Zhuze, V. G. Loshkarev and others, made it possible to create a coherent theory of semiconductors and determine the ways of their application.

Start silicon age In 1947, they laid in the bowels of the laboratories of the Bell telephone company where the first transistor in the current cycle was “born” - a semiconductor amplifying element. The event marked the transition of electronics from bulky vacuum tubes to more compact and economical semiconductors. A new round of civilization began, called the "Silicon Age". It is assumed that just knowledge from semiconductors could decipher from the previous cycle of the development of civilization on Earth

The first industrial samples of semiconductor devices - capable of amplifying and generating electrical oscillations, were proposed in 1948. With the advent of transistors, the period of conquest of electronics by semiconductors begins. The ability of transistors to operate at low voltages and currents made it possible to reduce the size of all elements in the circuits, opened up the possibility of miniaturization of electronic equipment. Simultaneously with the development of new types of devices, work was carried out to improve the technological methods for their manufacture.

In the first half of the 50s, a method was developed for the diffusion of dopants into semiconductor materials, and in the early 60s, planar and epitaxial technologies were developed, which determined the progress in the production of semiconductor structures for many years. The 1950s are marked by discoveries in the field of solid state physics and the transition to quantum electronics, which led to the development of laser technology. A great contribution to the development of this branch of science and technology was made by Soviet scientists N. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov, who were awarded the Lenin (1959) and Nobel (1964) prizes.

Fourth period of development of electronics originates in the 1960s. It is characterized by the development and practical development integrated circuits that combined the production of active and passive elements of functional devices in a single technological cycle. The LSI integration level reaches thousands of elements in one chip. Mastering the production of large and extra-large integrated circuits made it possible to move on to the creation of functionally complete digital devices - microprocessors designed to work together with memory devices and provide information processing and control according to a given program.

Achievements in semiconductor electronics were a factor in the emergence of microelectronics. Further, the development of electronics goes along the path of microminiaturization of electronic devices, increasing the reliability, efficiency of electronic devices and integrated circuits IC, improving their quality indicators, reducing the spread of parameters, expanding the frequency and temperature ranges. The "transistorization" of electronic equipment, begun in the 1950s, will remain a symbol of semiconductor electronics in its qualitatively new form - integrated electronics - for the coming years. Of great importance is the development of a new direction in electronics - optoelectronics, which combines electrical and optical methods of signal conversion and processing (conversion of an electrical signal into an optical one, and then an optical signal back into an electrical one).

The history of the development of electronics. The fifth stage can be called semiconductors in processors. Or the end of the silicon age. In advanced areas of modern electronics, such as the design and manufacture of processors, where the size and speed of semiconductor elements began to play a decisive role, the development of silicon technologies has almost come to its physical limit. In recent years, an improvement in the performance of integrated circuits, achieved by increasing the operating clock frequency and increasing the number of transistors.

With an increase in the switching speed of transistors, their heat dissipation increases exponentially. This stopped the maximum clock speed of processors somewhere around 3 GHz in 2005, and since then only "multi-core" has been increasing, which is essentially marking time.

There are slight advances in the quantitative integration of semiconductor elements in a single chip by reducing their physical dimensions - the transition to a more subtle technological process. As of 2009-11, 32 nm technology was used in full, in which the transistor channel length is only 20 nm. The transition to a thinner technological process of 16 nm began only in 2014.

The speed of transistors increases as they decrease, but it is no longer possible to increase the clock frequency of the processor core, as it was before 90 nm of the technological process. This only speaks of the impasse in the development of silicon technologies, although they will be used for at least another century, unless, of course, the reset of the seventh cycle of civilization in this solar system is carried out.

Graphene developments should be made public in the next decade, especially some Russian institutions have advanced in this thanks to the decoding of information from the previous cycle, the names of which I cannot yet indicate.

Graphene It is a semiconductor material only rediscovered in 2004. Several laboratories have already synthesized a graphene-based transistor that can operate in three stable states. For a similar silicon solution, three separate semiconductor transistors would be required. This will allow in the near future to create integrated circuits from fewer transistors that will perform the same functions as their obsolete silicon counterparts.

Another important advantage of graphene semiconductors is their ability to operate at high frequencies. Moreover, these frequencies can reach 500-1000 GHz.