The implementation of the technological process of material production is carried out using various technical means, which include: equipment, machine tools, tools, conveyor lines, etc. By analogy, there should be something similar for information technology. Such technical means of information production will be hardware, software and mathematical support of this process. With their help, the primary information is processed into information of a new quality. Let us single out software products separately from these tools and call them a toolkit, and for greater clarity, we can concretize it, calling it software tools of information technology. Let's define this concept.

Information technology toolkit is one or several interconnected software products for a certain type of computer, the technology of work in which allows you to achieve the goal set by the user. As a toolkit, you can use the following common types of software products for a personal computer: word processor (editor), desktop publishing systems, spreadsheets, database management systems, electronic notebooks, electronic calendars, functional information systems (financial, accounting, marketing etc.), expert systems, etc.

Tools and means (tools) of production are a necessary component of any technology. Information technologies are no exception, the instrumental base of which is formed by technical, software, methodological and linguistic means.

Information technology tools- a set of technical, software, linguistic and methodological tools that ensure the implementation of information processes.

6.1. TECHNICAL MEANS

As part of the technical support of information technologies (with some degree of convention), the following groups of tools are distinguished:

Computer equipment (computers and peripheral devices), providing electronic presentation of information and automation of all information processes;

Telecommunication facilities and systems that ensure the transmission of information over a distance;

Printing, copying and duplicating equipment designed for copying and duplicating information;

Means for recording and reproducing audiovisual information (photo, television, video, film and sound);

Office equipment (office equipment) designed for the mechanization and automation of office work and management activities.

The conventionality of such a classification is associated with a violation of the unity of the basis and the principle of non-intersection of divisions: the same means (for example, computer) are presented in all five groups; and copiers and communications are widely used in the office.

In the context of our reasoning, it makes sense to classify technical means in the context of information processes, for the implementation of which they are intended.

1. Means for collecting (registering) and entering (recording) information:

Personal computers - means of inputting textual, tabular, graphic, audiovisual and other information and recording it on machine-readable media;

Scanners - means of optical input - automatic reading of text or images on paper with subsequent conversion into a format available for processing and storage in a computer;

Digitizers - means of keyboardless input of text and graphic images into computers;

Writing machines (mechanical, electrical, electronic) - means of making paper (test and tabular) documents;

Orgavaty - a complex of electromechanical and electronic means of automation of the process of compilation, editing and production of text and tabular documents;

Dictaphones are means of recording sound (mainly speech) information on various media (film, magnetic, optical), often with the aim of converting it into text information;

Tape recorders - means of recording audio information;

Photo, film, television, video cameras - means of recording static and moving images and audiovisual information;

Measuring equipment (sensors, instruments, installations) - means of fixing and measuring a signal that notifies of the occurrence of controlled events, etc.

2. Means of semantic and technical information processing:

Computers (microcomputers, personal, portable, pocket, large, super-large) - means of automated processing of digital information;

Mounting equipment - means of processing (editing) of audio, visual, audiovisual, multimedia information (digital and analog devices for editing sound and images, editing tables);

Means of reprography and operational printing - equipment for copying and duplicating documents (means of photocopying, diazocopying, electrophotography, thermography, electronic spark copying, risographic copying, microfilming; equipment for hectographic, screen, offset printing);

Means of technical processing of information carriers (folding, perforating and cutting machines, machines for shredding papers, etc.);

Means of technical processing of documents (binding, gluing and binding equipment, machines for applying protective coatings on documents);

Means for technical processing of correspondence (envelope opening, addressing, stamping, marking machines and devices, machines for shredding papers, etc.), etc.

3. Information storage media:

Computers - means of storing electronic documents and data (database servers, file servers, application servers, etc., local computers);

Information carriers (paper, film, magnetic, optical, holographic, micro-carriers, punched carriers);

Stationery storage of documents (multiformes, folders, tablets, containers, etc.);

File cabinets (flat, vertical, elevator, rotating, etc.) and filing equipment;

Office furniture (cabinets, tables, shelves, safes, etc.).

4. Information retrieval tools:

Automated ISS (electronic catalogs, databanks, electronic libraries, Internet Web-addresses, etc.);

Mechanized IRS - IRS, based on the use of punched and micro-carriers of information, searching by the method of mechanical sorting of records and codes with special devices (calculating and perforating machines, reading devices, selectors);

Manual IRS (card catalogs and filing cabinets, reference and retrieval apparatus of printed publications, etc.).

5. Means of information transmission:

Local, regional, global, corporate computer networks; means of electronic communication, transmission of computer information over a distance;

Means (equipment) of electrical, radio, television communication (telephone, telegraph, facsimile machines, radio, television transmitters and receivers, etc.).

Communication channels - means of transmitting acoustic, optical and electrical signals - are divided into wireless (radio communication, satellite communication) and wired (cable communication: coaxial cable, unprotected twisted pair, protected twisted pair, fiber optic cable);

Vehicles - means of mechanical delivery of documents (carts for transporting documents inside premises, elevator equipment, conveyors, conveyors, pneumatic mail, automobile and other transport, etc.).

6. Information output means:

Video monitors, multimedia projectors, plasma panels - means of displaying electronic information;

Printers (matrix, inkjet, laser) - printing devices that provide the transfer of machine-readable text, numerical and graphic information on paper;

Plotters (plotters) - devices that transfer machine-readable graphic information to paper;

Audio equipment - means for outputting audio information (radio receivers, players, tape recorders, audio players, music centers, etc.);

Video equipment - means of outputting audiovisual information (televisions, home theaters, cinema projection equipment, video systems, DVD players, etc.).

Assessing the state and development trends of the technical base of information technologies, experts note:

1) the priority attention of developers and the growth in demand for digital devices in comparison with analog ones (for example, in the leading countries of the world, the growth in the number of home computers exceeds the growth in the number of televisions);

2) the number of computers in personal use becomes comparable to the number of machines used in enterprises and organizations;

3) the dynamic development of satellite and cable television networks, radio broadcasting in the FM range (digital technology that allows you to simulate the sound of real musical instruments by synthesizing several signal generators);

4) the advanced development of the system of computer telecommunications, mobile telephony in comparison with other methods of remote transmission of information.

6.2. SOFTWARE

Information technology software tools (PS)Are computer (machine) programs presented in a programming language or in machine code describing the actions that the computer must perform in accordance with the algorithm for solving a specific problem or group of tasks.

Information technology software at the most general level is divided into two classes:

Basic PS

Applied PS.

To basic software, in turn, include:

Programming languages;

Operating Systems (OS);

Operating system shells;

Service tools and utilities.

Programming languages ​​- these are formalized languages ​​designed to describe programs and algorithms for solving problems on a computer. Programming languages ​​fall into two main categories:

High-level languages – programming languages, the means of which provide a description of tasks in a visual, easily comprehensible form, convenient for the programmer. They do not depend on the internal machine codes of computers of any type; therefore, programs written in high-level languages ​​require translation into machine codes by programs of the translator or interpreter. High-level languages ​​include Fortran, PL / 1, BASIC, Pascal, C, Ada, etc .;

Low-level languages - programming languages ​​intended for a certain type of computer and reflecting its internal machine code (conditional synonyms "machine language", "machine-oriented language" and "assembly language").

Operating system - a program (or a set of programs) that controls the main actions of the computer, its peripheral devices and ensures the launch of all other programs, as well as interaction with the user. The OS, in particular, performs the following functions: testing the operability of the computing system and setting it up at the initial start-up; ensuring synchronous and efficient interaction of all hardware and software components of a computing system during its operation, memory management; information input-output control; file system (resource) management; process interaction management; dispatching processes; protection and accounting for the use of resources, etc. Historically, there are two main lines of OS development:

1) CP / M> QDOS> DOS> MS-DOS> Windows;

2) Multics> UNIX> Minix> Linux.

Depending on from functional possibilities are distinguished:

Single-user, single-tasking systems (MS-DOS, DR-DOS);

Single-user multitasking systems (OS / 2, Windows 95/98, Solaris);

Multi-user systems that support network mode ( Windows NT, Windows 2000, Mac OS, Novel Netware, systems of the UNIX family).

Specialized operating systems are being developed for mobile PCs and phones: EPOC (provides Internet access); Palm OS (focused on increased monitor resolution), etc.

Operating system skins(command-file processors) are designed to organize user interaction with a computer system. In computers of the new generation, it is carried out by simpler methods than in earlier operating systems (for example, Norton Commander or Windows versions prior to 3.11). Often, software shells are created not only to facilitate work, but also to provide the user with additional capabilities that are not available in standard software.

Service Tools are used to expand OS functions, ensure reliable operation of hardware (for example, drivers, peripherals) and perform special typical tasks by a computer (diagnostics, memory management, fighting computer viruses, formatting disks, archiving files, etc.).

Depending on the purpose and principle of operation, a distinction is made between antivirus programs:

Watchmen (detectors) - designed to detect virus-infected files;

Phages (doctors) - designed to detect and neutralize viruses known to them (AidsTest, DrWeb, Norton Antivirus, etc.);

Auditors - controlling the most vulnerable to viruses computer components, allowing you to return damaged files and system areas to their original position (Adinf et al.);

Resident monitors (filters) - intercepting calls to the operating system in the event of a threat of infection ( Vsafe, NAVTSR, etc.);

Complex - combining the functions of several specialized programs (AntiViral Toolkit Pro by Eugene Kaspersky - AVP - Kaspersky Anti-Virus).

Archivers provide a compact presentation of files and disks for the purpose of transferring data to other computers, creating insurance copies. Most popular archivers WinZip, WinRAR, WinARJ.

Utilities They are distinguished by objects and purpose: testing of functional blocks of a computer, servicing machine media, servicing the file system, administering computer networks. Some of the most common utilities include: Norton Utilities, SiSoft Sandra for Windows, Quarterdeck, WinProbe, Manifest and etc.

Programs for increasing the performance of magnetic disks designed to increase the speed of access to disk data: defragmentation programs (SpeeDisk and Defrag), disk caching programs (SmartDrive) and etc.

Maintenance programs for magnetic disks designed to diagnose, correct and recover disk data (Image, Calibrate, Undelete, Unerase, ScanDisk, Norton Disk Doctor, Rescue) and etc.

Applied (special) software tools (applications)- these are individual application programs or packages of applied programs designed to solve specific problems related to the field of user activity (management, translation, design and engineering, etc.), or a specific subject area (problem-oriented information systems, databases).

Database Management System(DBMS) - a complex of software and linguistic tools designed for the implementation, updating, storage and operation of the database. In fact, it is a set of software modules that runs under a specific operating system and performs the following functions: description of data at the conceptual and logical levels; loading data; data storage; search and response to a request (transaction); alteration; ensuring safety and integrity. The DBMS provides the user with the following linguistic means: data description language, data manipulation language, application (built-in) data language.

Modern DBMS (Oracle, SQL, Server, Informix, Sybase, Visual FoxPro Standard, Access from the package Microsoft Office and others) support the functioning of distributed information systems, multi-user mode of operation, guarantee the protection of information from loss or distortion in the event of any failures (including physical disk failure), have reliable means of protection against unauthorized access, allow the use of a wide range of software and hardware, provide efficient use of system resources for any changes in load.

Application package(PPP) - a set (set) of programs and related documentation (license certificate, passport, user instructions, etc.), designed to solve problems in a certain area of ​​activity: enterprise management, organization (1C: enterprise), statistical calculations (Statistica), computer-aided design (AutoCAD), library, publishing, accounting, etc.

Application software differentiated on various grounds: purpose, field of application, etc., however, these classifications are not strict. Therefore, we will name the most common software tools designed to solve specific information problems:

1. Word processors (Microsoft Word, Lexicon, Lotus Word Perfect, Corel Word Pro, Open Office Writer and etc.).

2. Spreadsheets (Microsoft Excel, Corel Quattro Pro, Lotus 1-2-3, Open Office Calc and etc.).

3. Personal information systems (organizers) - programs designed for planning working hours, drawing up meeting minutes, schedules, maintaining a notebook and telephone books (Microsoft Outlook, Lotus Organizer, Lotus Notes, Open Office Schedule and etc.).

4. Spell checkers (Lingvo Corrector, Stylus Lingvo Office).

5. Translation software (Stylus General for Windows, Promt XT and etc.).

6. OCR programs designed to convert the information read by the scanner into a textual representation ( OCR CuneiForm, Fine Reader).

7. Programs of presentation graphics (Microsoft Power Point, Lotus Freelance Graphics, Corel Presentations, Open Office Impress and etc.).

8. Editors Web pages (Microsoft Front Page, Netscape Composer, Macromedia Free Hand and etc.).

9. Software multimedia (Sierra Club Collection, Outer Space Collection, Mozart and etc.).

10. Raster graphics editors (Adobe Photoshop, Corel Photo-Paint and etc).

11. Vector graphics editors (CorelDraw, Adobe Illustrator and etc.).

12. Desktop publishing systems (Adobe Page Maker, Quark Xpress, Corel Ventura, Microsoft Publisher and etc.).

13. Browsers are programs designed to organize user interaction with remote subscribers or network information resources, to view the pages of Web servers (Microsoft Internet Explorer, Netscape Navigator, Collabra Share, Web Sewer and etc.).

14. Mail clients (Microsoft Outlook, Microsoft Outlook Express, Microsoft Internet Mail, Netscape Messenger, The Bat and etc.).

15. Software development tools (Borland Delphi, Microsoft Visual Basic, Borland C ++ Builder, Microsoft Visual ++ and etc.).

The main trends in software development:

Standardization of software tools allows them to be used on different hardware platforms and in the environment of different operating systems, as well as to ensure interaction with a wide range of applications;

Implementation of the principle of modularity - object-oriented programming - allows you to "build" task-oriented applications from different modules, thereby reducing labor intensity, cost of work and increasing the reliability of software;

Intellectualization of the user interface, ensuring its intuitive understanding, bringing the language of communication with a computer closer to the professional language of the user;

Intellectualization of the capabilities of programs and software systems through the use of artificial intelligence methods makes it possible to make applications more "smart" and to solve more and more complex, poorly formalized problems;

Focus on expanding the circle of users of software products;

- "programming" consumer goods (TVs, telephones, etc.) expands their capabilities and improves consumer characteristics.

6.3. METHODOLOGICAL TOOLS

For most technologies, a characteristic feature of their development is standardization and unification.

Standardization - Finding solutions for repetitive tasks and achieving optimal orderliness.

Unification is a relative reduction in the variety of elements compared to the variety of systems in which they are used.

If in the field of traditional material production a system for the formation and maintenance of standards has long been formed, in the field of information technology there is much to be done.

The main task of standardization in this area is the creation of a system of regulatory and reference documentation that defines the requirements for the development, implementation and use of all components of information technology. Today in the field of information technology there is a heterogeneous picture of the level of standardization. A number of technological processes are characterized by a high level of standardization (for example, for the transfer of information), for others - it is in its infancy.

We will organize the various standards and similar methodological materials according to the following criteria:

1. By the approving authority:

Official international standards;

Official national standards;

National departmental standards;

Standards of international committees and associations;

Development Firm Standards;

De facto standards.

2. By subject area of ​​standardization:

Functional standards (standards for programming languages, interfaces, protocols, coding, encryption, etc.);

Standards for the phases of development (life cycle) of information systems (standards for design, materialization, operation, maintenance, etc.).

Depending on the methodological source, the method, model, methodology, and approach can be used as standards. It should be noted that these standards have varying degrees of binding, specificity, detail, openness, flexibility and adaptability.

As an example, consider a number of standards at various levels.

International ISO / OSI standard developed by the International Standards Organization (ISO), intended for use in the field of network information exchange, represents a seven-level reference model known as the OSI (Open System Intercongtction) model. Initially, efforts were directed to the development of a structure (model) of communication protocols for digital devices. The main idea was related to the division of protocol functions into seven different categories (levels), each of which is associated with one higher and one lower level (excluding the highest and lowest). The idea of ​​a seven-layer open connection is not to try to create a universal set of communication protocols, but to implement a "model" within which the various protocols already available can be used. Recently, significant progress has been made in the implementation of various types of protocols, as evidenced by the successful functioning of many data transmission networks, for example, the Internet.

International standard ISO / IEC 12207: 1995-08-01- the basic standard of software life cycle processes, focused on its various types, as well as types of information systems, where software is included as an integral part. Developed in 1995 by ISO / IEC JTC1 Information Technology Subcommittee SC7 Software Engineering. Includes a description of the main, auxiliary and organizational processes.

Basic software processes:

The acquisition process, which determines the actions of the buyer purchasing an information system, software product or its service;

The delivery process governing the actions of the supplier supplying the above components;

The development process that determines the actions of the developer of the principles of building a software product;

The process of functioning, which determines the actions of the operator who serves the information system in the interests of users and includes, in addition to the requirements of the operating instructions, consulting users and organizing feedback with them;

The maintenance process that regulates the actions of personnel to modify the software product, maintain its current state and functional performance.

Supporting processes regulate documentation, configuration management, quality assurance, verification, certification, joint assessment, audit.

The degree to which it is mandatory for an organization deciding to apply ISO / IEC 12207 makes it responsible in a commercial relationship to specify a minimum set of processes and tasks that need to be aligned with this standard.

The standard contains few descriptions aimed at database design, which is explained by the presence of separate standards for this topic.

GOST 34 considers automated systems of various types and all types of their components, including software and databases, as an object of standardization. The standard mainly deals with project documents, which distinguishes it from the ISO / IEC 12207 standard. In the structure of the standard, the stages and stages of the development of automated systems (AS) are distinguished.

Consider a brief description:

1. Formation of requirements for the AU:

Inspection of the facility and justification of the need to create a nuclear power plant;

Formation of user requirements for the AU;

Registration of a report on the work performed and an application for the development of the AU (tactical and technical assignment);

2. Development of the AU concept:

Study of the object;

Carrying out the necessary research work;

Development of options for the concept of the speaker, which meets the requirements of the user;

Registration of a report on the work performed;

3. Terms of reference:

Development and approval of technical specifications.

4. Draft project:

Development of preliminary design solutions for the system and its parts;

Development of documentation for the NPP and its parts.

5. Technical design:

Development of design solutions for the system and its parts;

Development of documentation for the NPP and its parts;

Development and execution of documentation for the supply of products for completing nuclear power plants and / or technical requirements (technical specifications) for their development;

Development of design assignments in the adjacent parts of the project of the automation object.

6. Working documentation:

Development of working documentation for the system and its parts;

Development or adaptation of programs.

7. Commissioning:

Preparation of the automation object for the NPP commissioning;

Personnel training;

Complete set of the AU with the supplied products (software, hardware and information tools);

Construction and installation work;

Commissioning works;

Preliminary tests;

Trial operation;

Acceptance tests.

8. Accompaniment of the AU:

Performance of work in accordance with warranty obligations;

Post-warranty service.

GOST 34 contains a generalized conceptual and terminological system, a general development scheme, a general set of documents. Currently, there is no obligation to comply with GOST 34, therefore it is used as methodological support.

Oracle COM (Custom Development Method) is a development of the previously developed version of Oracle CASE-Method, known for using Designer / 2000. It is focused on the development of customized information systems. Structurally built as a hierarchical set of stages, processes and task sequences.

Stages:

Strategy (definition of requirements);

Analysis (formation of detailed requirements);

Design (converting requirements into specifications);

Implementation (application development and testing);

Implementation (installation, debugging and commissioning);

Operation (support, maintenance, expansion). Processes:

RD - definition of production requirements;

ES - research and analysis of existing systems;

TA - definition of technical architecture;

DB - database design and construction;

MD - design and implementation of modules;

CV - data conversion;

DO - documentation;

TE - testing;

TR - training;

TS - transition to a new system;

PS - support and maintenance.

Processes Consist of sequences of tasks, and tasks of different processes are interconnected by links.

The methodology does not provide for the inclusion of new tasks, deleting old ones, changing the sequence of tasks. The technique is optional, it can be considered a proprietary standard.

In connection with the widespread use of object technology at present, of great interest is CORBA (Common Object Request Broker Architecture)- a standard in the form of a set of specifications for object type middleware. Its author is the international consortium OMG (Object Management Group), which unites more than 800 companies (IBM, Siements, Microsoft, Sun, Oracle, etc.). OMG has developed a Semantic Standard that includes 4 main types:

Objects that simulate the world (student, teacher, exam);

Operations related to the object and characterizing its properties (date of birth of the student, gender, etc.);

Types describing specific values ​​of operations;

Subtypes that qualify types.

Based on these concepts, the OMG has defined an object model, a specification for the evolution of the CORBA standard that is constantly evolving. CORBA currently has 4 main parts:

Object Request Broker

Object Services

Common Facilities

Application and Domain Interfaces

In parallel with CORBA, Microsoft has developed COM / DCOMB standard (Component Object Model / Distributed COM), designed to combine small office programs. The main disadvantage of this standard was the focus on Windows and Microsoft. Microsoft hasn't joined OMG for a long time and has been developing its own standard. However, life forced to begin peace negotiations. OMG interacts with other centers of standardization: ISO, Open Group, WWW consortium, IEEE and many others. CORBA has become an integral part of distributed object computing systems.

The given examples of standards give an idea of ​​approaches to solving the problems of standardization.

Naturally, the costs of standardization can make design work for the implementation of information technologies more expensive, but these costs are more than compensated for during the operation and development of the system, for example, when replacing equipment or software environment.

Thus, standardization is the only way to ensure order in the rapidly developing information technology.

By analogy with modern construction, when houses are built from blocks or panels, software applications are implemented from components. In this case, a component is understood as an independent software product that supports the object ideology, implements a separate subject area and provides interaction with other components using open interfaces. This technology is aimed at shortening the development time of software applications and ensuring implementation flexibility. In terms of the implementation of such a technology, it is natural to move from interface standardization to component standardization. To unify this process, business process design meta-standards are needed, which formulate the basic installation concepts. At first glance, business processes and information technology have little in common. However, the introduction of information technology always leads to a reorganization of the business. Therefore, business modeling techniques have a lot to do with the design of information systems. Here the following chain can be built: subject area - business model - information system model - technological model - detailed presentation - system functioning.

Among business process design standards the following can be noted: the family of standards IDEF (Integration Definition for Function), RUP (by Rational Software), Catalysis (by Computer Associates). Each of these standards is based on original concepts. For example, in the IDEFO (Integration Definition for Function Modeling) standard, such concepts are:

- "Work" (Fctivity) - to designate an activity;

- “Input”, “Output”, “Control”, “Mechanism” - to designate interfaces.

The use of business process design standards makes it possible to unify the process of abstraction and formalization of the domain representation. A powerful methodological tool in this area is the concept of CALS (Continuous Acquisition and Life cycle Support). A Russian-language term that reflects the specificity of CALS - computer support for product life cycle processes (KSPI). There are the following main aspects of this concept:

Computerization of the main processes of information creation;

Integration of information processes aimed at. sharing and reusing the same data;

Transition to paperless technology for organizing business processes.

There are two components in the CALS methodology (CALS): computerized integrated manufacturing (CIP) and integrated logistics support (ILS).

The instrumentation includes:

Computer-aided design systems for design and technological documentation (CAD-K, CAD-T, CAD / CAM);

Systems for the automated development of operational documentation (ETPD - Electronic Technical Develoment);

Project and Program Management Systems (PM -);

Product data management systems (PDM - Project Data Managent);

Integrated management systems (MRP / ERP / SCM). The Integrated Logistics Support System (ILS) is intended for informative support of business processes at the post-production stages of the product life cycle, from development to disposal. The goal of ILS implementation is to reduce the cost of storage and product ownership. The ILP includes:

Logistics Suuport Analysis system;

Logistics planning system (Order Administration, Invoicing);

Electronic operational documentation and electronic catalogs;

Operation support system, etc.

An important component (KSPI) is an electronic signature (EDS). A modern electronic technical document consists of two parts: substantive and requisite. The first contains the necessary information, and the second includes authentication and identification information, including one or more electronic signatures from the required attributes.

The development of CALS (KSPI) is associated with the creation of a virtual enterprise, which is created by combining on a contractual basis enterprises and organizations participating in the product life cycle and connected by common business processes. Information interaction between the participants of the virtual enterprise is implemented on the basis of data warehouses, united through a common corporate or global network.

Significant progress has been made in the area of ​​user interface standardization. Among the many interfaces, we distinguish the following classes and subclasses:

Symbolic (subclass - command);

Graphic (subclasses - simple, two-dimensional, three-dimensional);

Speech;

Biometric (mimic); !

Semantic (public).

There are two aspects of the user interface: functional and ergonomic, each of which is governed by its own standards. One of the most common 2D graphical interfaces, WIMP is supported by the following functional standards:

ISO 9241-12-1998 (visual presentation of information, windows, lists, tables, labels, fields, etc.);

ISO 9241-14-1997 (menu);

ISO 9241-16-1998 (direct manipulation);

ISO / IES 10741-1995 (cursor)

ISO / IES 12581- (1999-2000) (pictograms).

Ergonomic standards are uniform across classes and subclasses:

ISO 9241-10-1996 (ergonomic guidelines, fit for purpose, self-descriptiveness, controllability, fit with user expectations, error tolerance, customizability, learnability);

ISO / IES 13407-1999 (rationale, principles, design and implementation of a user-centered project);

GOST R ISO / IEC 12119-2000 (requirements for practicality, comprehensibility, visibility, ease of use);

GOST R ISO / IEC 9126-93 (practicality, comprehensibility, learnability, ease of use).

Evaluating the above standards, it should be emphasized that efficiency is a criterion for interface functionality, and compliance with user requirements is a criterion for ergonomics.

In addition to the general formalization of information technologies discussed above, at present, much attention is paid to the development of intracorporate standards. At first glance, the introduction of information technology presupposes the organization of paperless document flow. In practice, however, there are a large number of reporting forms that require hard copies. Unfortunately, at this stage it is impossible to develop a universal internal corporate standard and replicate it. To unify the process of forming internal corporate standards, a unified technology for their design is used, which contains the following sequence of works:

Definition of the task tree (table of contents of the standard);

Definition of standard forms for each task;

Appointment of performers;

Development of a matrix of responsibility;

Development of a calendar schedule;

Description of incoming and outgoing indicators;

Compilation of a glossary of terms.

Control questions

1. Give the concept of "tools" IT.

2. Name the groups of means of technological support of information technologies.

3. How are technical means classified in terms of information processes?

4. What are the basic software tools of information technology.

5. What are the main trends in software development?

6. What is the purpose of unification and standardization?

7. List the main types of standards.

8. What are the main software processes covered by current standards?

1. Section 3. Information technology

2. Information systems concept

System- any object that is simultaneously considered as a set of dissimilar elements combined in the interests of achieving the set goals. The systems differ significantly from each other both in composition and in terms of their main goals.

Information System (IS) - an interconnected set of tools, methods and personnel used to store, process and issue information in order to achieve the set goal. Implementation of IS functions is impossible without knowledge of information technology oriented towards it. That. :

Information system - a human-computer system for decision support and production of information products (IP), using computer information technology, i.e. The IS system is a medium for the application of information technology.

3. Information technology concept

Information technology (IT) - a process that uses a set of means and methods for collecting, processing and transmitting data (primary information) to obtain information of a new quality about the state of an object, process or phenomenon (information product), i.e. a set of clearly defined targeted actions of personnel to process information in an individual entrepreneur.

The purpose of information technology - the production of information for its analysis by a person and its adoption on the basis of a decision to perform an action. In this manual, only new information technologies are considered.

4.

New information technology - technology based on innovative developments and ideas. Its implementation is innovative in the sense that it significantly changes the content of various activities in organizations. Its concept also includes communication technologies that ensure the transfer of information by various means.

New technology is constantly changing its content, as its means, methods and tools develop. Information technology is the most important component of the process of using society's information resources. By now, it has gone through several evolutionary stages, the change of which was determined mainly by the development of scientific and technological progress, the emergence of new technical means of information processing. In modern society, the main technical means of information processing technology is a personal computer, which has significantly influenced both the concept of building and using technological processes and the quality of the resulting information. The introduction of a personal computer into the information sphere and the use of telecommunication means of communication determined a new stage in the development of information technology and, as a result, a change in its name due to the addition of one of the symbols: "computer", "modern", etc.

Modern information technology - information technology using personal computers and telecommunications facilities, with a "friendly" user interface.

Basic principles of modern (computer) information technology:

§ Interactive (dialog) mode of working with a computer;

§ Integration (docking, reciprocity) with other software products;

§ Flexibility in the process of changing both data and task settings.

The main characteristic features of modern information technology

Methodology	The main feature	Result
Fundamentally new processing facilities information	transmission, storage and display of information "Embedding" in control technology	New communication technology
Holistic technological systems	Integration of functions of specialists and managers	New information processing technology
Purposeful creatures	Taking into account the laws of the social environment	New technology for making management decisions

5. Information Technology Toolkit

Information Technology Toolkit - one or more interconnected software products for a certain type of computer, the technology of work in which allows you to achieve the goal set by the user.

As a toolkit, you can use the following common types of software products for a personal computer:

1) Word processor (editor);

2) Desktop publishing systems;

3) Spreadsheets;

4) Database management systems;

5) Graphic editor;

6) Computer-aided design systems;

7) Organizers (electronic notebooks, calendars, etc.);

8) Functional information systems

(financial, accounting, for marketing, design of enterprise activities, etc.)

9) Expert systems, etc.

6. Information technology components

1st level - stages where relatively long technological processes are implemented. consisting of operations and actions of subsequent levels.

2nd level - operations, as a result of which a specific object will be created in the software environment selected at the 1st level.

3rd level –actions - a set of work methods, standard for each software environment, leading to the fulfillment of the goal set in the corresponding operation. Each action changes the contents of the screen.

n-th level – elementary operations for mouse and keyboard control.

Mastering IT and its further use should be reduced to the fact that you must first master a set of elementary operations (EO) well. An action is composed of a limited set of EO in various combinations, and operations are composed of actions that determine the stages. The set of technological stages forms an information technology that must meet the following requirements:

- Provide a high degree of dismemberment of the entire information processing process into stages, operations, actions;

- Include the entire set of elements necessary to achieve the goal;

- Have a regular character, i.e. all levels should be standardized and unified, which will allow more efficient use of technologies to solve similar problems.

7. Stages of IT development

Information technology has evolved in stages, but these stages can be classified in different ways:

By the type of tasks and data processing processes.

Stage 1(60-70 years) - data processing in computing centers in the mode of collective use. The goal is the automation of human operational actions.

Stage 2(since 80) - solving strategic problems.

On the problems standing in the way of informatization of society

1st stage(until the end of the 60s) is characterized by the problem of processing large amounts of data in conditions of limited hardware capabilities.

2nd stage(until the end of the 70s) is associated with the spread of the computer series IBM / 360. The problem at this stage is the lag of software from the level of hardware development.

3rd stage(since the beginning of the 80s) - a computer becomes a tool for a non-professional user, and information systems - a means of supporting his decision-making. Problems - maximum satisfaction of the user's needs and the creation of an appropriate interface for working in a computer environment.

4th stage(since the beginning of the 90s) - the creation of modern technology of inter-organizational relations and information systems. The problems at this stage are numerous. The most significant of them are:

Elaboration of agreements and establishment of standards, protocols for computer communications;

Organization of access to strategic information;

Organization of information protection and security.

By the benefits that computer technology brings

1st stage(since the beginning of the 1960s) is characterized by rather efficient information processing when performing routine operations with a focus on the centralized collective use of the resources of computing centers. The main criterion for evaluating the effectiveness of the information systems being created was the difference between the funds spent on development and the funds saved as a result of implementation. The main problem at this stage was psychological - poor interaction between users, for whom information systems were created, and developers due to the difference in their views and understanding of the problems being solved. As a consequence of this problem, systems were created that users did not perceive well and, despite their rather large capabilities, did not fully use.

2nd stage(since the mid-70s) is associated with the emergence of personal computers. The approach to the creation of information systems has changed - the orientation is shifting towards the individual user to support his decisions. The user is interested in the ongoing development, contact is established with the developer, mutual understanding of both groups of specialists arises. At this stage, both centralized data processing, characteristic of the first stage, and decentralized, based on solving local problems and working with local databases at the user's workplace are used.

3rd stage(since the beginning of the 90s) is associated with the concept of analysis of strategic business advantages and is based on the achievements of telecommunications technology for distributed information processing. Information systems are aimed not only at increasing the efficiency of data processing and helping the manager. Appropriate information technology should help an organization compete and gain an edge.

By types of technology tools

1st stage(until the second half XIX c.) - "manual" information technology, the tools of which were: pen, inkwell, book. Communications were carried out manually by sending letters, packages, dispatches through the mail. The main goal of the technology is to present information in the desired form.

2nd stage(from the end of XIX c.) - "mechanical" technology, the tools of which were: a typewriter, a telephone, a dictaphone, equipped with more advanced mail delivery means. The main goal of the technology is to present information in the required form using more convenient means.

3rd stage(40-60s XX c.) - "electrical" technology, the tools of which were: large computers and the corresponding software, electric typewriters, copiers, portable voice recorders.

4th stage(since the beginning of the 70s) - "electronic" technology, the main tools of which are large computers and automated control systems (ACS) and information retrieval systems (ISS) created on their basis, equipped with a wide range of basic and specialized software systems. The center of gravity of technology is even more shifted to the formation of the content side of information for the management environment in various spheres of public life, especially to the organization of analytical work. A multitude of objective and subjective factors did not allow solving the tasks set for the new concept and information technology. However, experience was gained in the formation of the content side of management information and a professional, psychological and social basis was prepared for the transition to a new stage in the development of technology.

5th stage(since the mid-80s) - "computer" ("new") technology, the main toolkit of which is a personal computer with a wide range of standard software products for various purposes. At this stage, the process of personalization of the ACS takes place, which manifests itself in the creation of decision support systems by certain specialists. Such systems have built-in elements of analysis and intelligence for different levels of control, are implemented on a personal computer and use telecommunications. In connection with the transition to a microprocessor base, technical means for household, cultural and other purposes are also subject to significant changes. Global and local and local computer networks are beginning to be widely used in various fields.

8. Problems of using information technologies

It is quite natural for information technologies that they become obsolete and replaced by new ones.

When introducing new information technology in an organization, it is necessary to assess the risk of lagging behind competitors as a result of its inevitable obsolescence over time, since information products, like no other types of tangible goods, have an extremely high rate of replacement by new types or versions. The turnover periods range from several months to one year.

If, in the process of introducing a new information technology, this factor is not given due attention, it is possible that by the time the company is transferred to a new information technology, it is already outdated and measures will have to be taken to modernize it. Such failures in the implementation of information technology are usually associated with imperfect technical means, while the main reason for failures is the absence or poor elaboration of the methodology for using information technology.

9. The role of the governance structure in the information system

The introduction of information technology for any organization is aimed at solving the following tasks:

1. The structure of the information system, its functional purpose must correspond to the goals of the organization. For example, in a commercial firm, an efficient business; in a state enterprise - solving social and economic problems.

2. The information system must be controlled by people, understood and used in accordance with basic social and ethical principles.

3. Production of reliable, reliable, timely and systematic information.

For the implementation and use of information systems and information technology, you must first understand the structure, functions and policies of the organization, the goals of management and decisions made, the capabilities of computer technology. An information system is part of an organization, and the key elements of any organization are structure and management bodies, standard procedures, personnel, subculture.

Building an information system and introducing information technology should begin with an analysis of the organization's management structure.

Organization management structure

Coordination of the work of all divisions of the organization is carried out through management bodies of different levels. Under management understand the provision of the set goal, subject to the implementation of the following functions: organizational, planning, accounting, analysis, control, incentives. Consider the content of management functions.

Organizational the function is to develop an organizational structure and a set of regulatory documents: the staffing table of a company, department, laboratory, group, etc. indicating subordination, responsibility, scope of competence, rights, duties, etc. Most often this is set out in the position of the department, laboratory or job descriptions.

Planning(planning function) consists in the development and implementation of plans for the implementation of the assigned tasks. For example, a business plan for the whole firm, a production plan, a marketing research plan, a financial plan, a research plan, etc. for various periods (year, quarter, month, day).

Accountingthe function consists in the development or use of ready-made forms and methods of accounting for the performance indicators of a company: accounting, financial accounting, management accounting, etc. In general accounting can be defined as the receipt, registration, accumulation, processing and provision of information about real business processes.

Analysisor the analytical function is associated with the study of the results of the fulfillment of plans and orders, the determination of influencing factors, the identification of reserves, the study of development trends, etc. The analysis is performed by different specialists depending on the complexity and level of the analyzed object or process. The analysis of the results of the company's economic activities for a year or more is carried out by specialists, and at the level of a shop, department - by a manager of this level (chief or his deputy) together with a specialist-economist.

Controlthe function is most often carried out by a manager: control over the implementation of plans, the expenditure of material resources, the use of funds, etc.

Stimulationor motivational the function involves the development and application of various methods of stimulating the work of subordinate workers:

Financial incentives - salary, bonuses, promotions, promotion, etc .;

Psychological incentives - gratitude, diplomas, titles, degrees, honor rolls, etc.

Decision-making - the act of purposeful impact on the control object, based on the analysis of the situation, the definition of the goal, the development of a program to achieve this goal.

Management levels (type of management activity) are determined by the complexity of the tasks being solved. The management structure of any organization is traditionally divided into three levels: operational, functional and strategic. The more difficult the task, the higher the level of management is required.

10. Information technology implementation methods

There are three main methods of information processing in the information process:

1. Centralized information processing on the computers of computing centers was the first historically developed technology. Large computing centers (CCs) for collective use were created, equipped with large computers (in our country - EC computers). The use of such computers made it possible to process large arrays of input information and receive, on this basis, various types of information products, which were then transmitted to users. This technological process was due to insufficient equipment of enterprises and organizations with computers in the 60-70s.

Dignity centralized technology methodologies:

The ability of the user to access large amounts of information in the form of databases and information products of a wide range;

Comparative ease of implementation of methodological solutions for the development and improvement of information technology due to their centralized adoption.

Flawssuch a methodology:

Limited liability of lower personnel, which does not contribute to the prompt receipt of information by the user, thereby hindering the correctness of the development of management decisions;

Limitation of the user's capabilities in the process of obtaining and using information.

2. Decentralized information processing associated with the appearance in the 80s. personal computers and the development of telecommunications. It has quite significantly replaced the previous technology, since it gives the user ample opportunities in working with information and does not limit his initiatives.

Meritssuch methodologies are:

Flexibility of the structure, providing room for user initiatives;

Strengthening the responsibility of the lowest level of employees;

Reducing the need for the use of a central computer and, accordingly, control by the computing center;

More complete realization of the user's creative potential through the use of computer communications.

Flawssuch a methodology:

The complexity of standardization due to the large number of unique developments;

Psychological rejection by users of the standards recommended by the center and off-the-shelf software products;

Uneven development of the level of information technology in local places, which is primarily determined by the level of qualifications of a particular employee.

3. Rational methodology ... The described advantages and disadvantages of centralized and decentralized information technology have led to the need to adhere to the line of reasonable application of both approaches. We will call this approach a rational methodology. A rational methodology for using information technology will allow achieving greater flexibility, maintain common standards, implement compatibility of information local products, reduce duplication of activities, etc.

Distribution of responsibilities for this methodology:

The computing center should be responsible for selecting a general strategy for the use of information technology, helping users both in work and in training, setting standards and determining a policy for the use of software and hardware;

The personnel using information technology must adhere to the instructions of the computer center, develop their local systems and technologies in accordance with the general plan of the organization.

11. Information Technology Implementation Concepts in a Firm

When introducing information technology in a company, it is necessary to choose one of two basic concepts, reflecting the prevailing points of view on the existing structure of organizations and the role of computer information processing in it:

The first concept focuses on the existing structure of the company. Information technology adapts to the organizational structure, and there is only a modernization of working methods. Communications are poorly developed, only jobs are being rationalized. There is a distribution of functions between technical workers and specialists. The degree of risk from the introduction of new information technology is minimal, since the costs are insignificant and the organizational structure of the company does not change.

Flaw- the need for continuous changes in the form of information presentation, adapted to specific technological methods and technical means. Any operational solution "gets bogged down" at various stages of information technology.

Dignity- the minimum degree of risk and costs.

Second concept focuses on the future structure of the firm. The existing structure will be modernized. This strategy assumes the maximum development of communications and the development of new organizational relationships. The productivity of the organizational structure of the company increases, since data archives are rationally distributed, the volume of information circulating through the system channels decreases and a balance is achieved between the tasks being solved.

Flaws:

Significant costs at the first stage associated with the development of a general concept and examination of all divisions of the company;

The presence of psychological tension caused by the alleged changes in the structure of the company and, as a result, changes in the staffing table and job responsibilities.

Advantages:

Rationalization of the organizational structure of the company;

Maximum employment of all employees;

High professional level;

Integration of professional functions through the use of computer networks.

TOOLKIT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY The implementation of the technological process of material production is carried out using various technical means, which include: equipment, machines, tools, conveyor lines, etc. By analogy, for information technology there should be something similar. Let us single out software products separately from these tools and call them a toolkit, and for greater clarity, we can concretize it by calling it software tools of information technology. Information Technology Toolkit ...

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PAGE \ * MERGEFORMAT 4

Lecture 3. INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY TOOLKIT

The implementation of the technological process of material production is carried out using various technical means, which include: equipment, machine tools, tools, conveyor lines, etc.

By analogy, there should be something similar for information technology. Such technical means of information production will be hardware, software and mathematical support of this process. With their help, the primary information is processed into information of a new quality. Let us single out software products separately from these tools and call them a toolkit, and for greater clarity, we can concretize it, calling it software tools of information technology.

Information Technology Toolkit- one or more interconnected software products for a certain type of computer, the technology of work in which allows you to achieve the goal set by the user.

As a toolkit, you can use the following common types of software products for a personal computer: word processor (editor), desktop publishing systems, spreadsheets, database management systems, electronic notebooks, electronic calendars, functional information systems (financial, accounting, marketing etc.)

3.1. Problems and prospects of using IT

Obsolescence of information technology.

It is quite natural for information technologies that they become obsolete and replaced by new ones. So, for example, the technology of batch processing of programs on a large computer in a computing center has been replaced by the technology of working on a personal computer at the user's workplace. The telegraph has transferred all its functions to the telephone.The telephone is gradually being replaced by the express delivery service. Telex has outsourced most of its functions to fax and email.

When introducing new information technology in an organization, it is necessary to assess the risk of lagging behind competitors as a result of its inevitable obsolescence over time, sinceinformation products, like no other types of tangible goods, have an extremely high rate of replacement by new types or versions.The turnover periods range from several months to one year. If, in the process of introducing new information technology, this factor is not given due attention, it is possible that by the time the company is transferred to the new information technology, it will become outdated and it will be necessary to take measures to modernize it. Such failures in the implementation of information technology are usually associated with imperfect technical means, while the main reason for failures is the absence or poor elaboration of methodology use of information technology.

1. Information technology use methodology

Centralized information processingon the computers of computing centers was the first historically developed technology. Large computing centers for collective use were created, equipped with large computers (in our country - the EU computer). The use of such computers made it possible to process large arrays of input information and, on this basis, obtain various types of information products, which were then transmitted to users. This technological process was due to insufficient equipment of enterprises and organizations with computers in the 60s - 70s.

Advantages of the centralized technology methodology:

The ability of the user to access large amounts of information in the form of databases and information products of a wide range;

Comparative ease of implementation of methodological solutions for the development and improvement of information technology due to their centralized adoption.

Flaws:

Limited liability of personnel who do not contribute to the prompt receipt of information by the user, thereby hindering the correct development of management decisions;

Limitation of the user's capabilities in the process of obtaining and using information.

Decentralized information processingassociated with the appearance in the 8Osbiennium personal computers and the development of telecommunications. It has quite significantly replaced the previous technology, since it gives the user ample opportunities in working with information and does not limit his initiatives.

The advantages of this methodology are:

Flexibility of the structure, providing room for user initiatives;

Strengthening the responsibility of the lowest level of employees;

Reducing the need for the use of a central computer and, accordingly, control by the computing center;

More complete realization of the user's creative potential through the use of computer communications.

However, this methodology has its drawbacks:

The complexity of standardization due to the large number of unique developments;

Psychological rejection by users of the standards recommended by the computing center in finished software products;

Uneven development of the level of information technology in local places, which is primarily determined by the level of qualifications of a particular employee.

The described advantages and disadvantages of centralized and decentralized information technology have led to the need to adhere to the line of reasonable application of both approaches.

This approach will be calledrational methodology... Its essence:

The computing center should be responsible for developing a general strategy for the use of information technology, helping users both in work and in training, setting a standard and determining a policy for the use of software and hardware;

The personnel using information technology must adhere to the instructions of the computer center, develop their local systems and technologies in accordance with the general plan of the organization.

A rational methodology for using information technology will allow achieving greater flexibility, maintaining common standards, ensuring compatibility of information local products, reducing duplication of activities, etc.

1. Economic laws of information technology development

H. Moore's Law has been true for the past 40 years and is likely to remain the same for at least another 15 years. It reads: "The computing power of microprocessors and the density of memory chips doubles approximately every 18 months at a constant price."

According to Robert Metcalfe's lawthe value of the network is the higher, the higher the number of its components. Thus, the more components a computer network (for example, the Internet) has, the more value it is for users and the more users will seek to connect to it.

Over the next few years, the number of Internet users will increase from 500 million to 1 billion, and then the value of this network as a means of access to information, communications and commerce will become even higher.

Network effect. This effect is that the value of a network connection to a user depends on the number of other users already connected to the network.

Photon law. Photon's law is a kind of telecommunication equivalent of H. Moore's law, but more effective. According to it, the throughput of a fiber-optic information transmission channel can be doubled approximately every 10 months.

Today, more than 700 million km of fiber optics are stretched between countries and continents. The usable bandwidth of this fiber doubles approximately once a year. As this optical infrastructure moves into our cities, high-speed Internet is becoming a part of many homes, making this network even more valuable.

Thus, the laws we have considered indicate that the transition from paper to electronic technologies for storing and processing information of any kind has become economically viable. In other words, the cost of using traditional paper-based storage and management technologies has become higher (more expensive) than the use of computer (electronic) technologies.

3.4. Choice of options for the implementation of information technology in the company

When introducing information technology in a company, it is necessary to choose one of two basic concepts that reflect the prevailing points of view on the existing structure of the organization and the role of computer information processing in it.

The first concept focuses on the existing structure of the company. Information technology adapts to the organizational structure, and there is only a modernization of working methods. Communications are poorly developed, only jobs are being rationalized. There is a distribution of functions between technical workers and specialists. The degree of risk from the introduction of a newinformation technology is minimal, since the costs are negligible and the organizational structure of the firm does not change.

The main disadvantagesuch a strategy is the need for continuous changes in the form of information presentation, adapted to specific technological methods and technical means. Any operational solution "gets bogged down" at various stages of information technology.

To the merits strategy can be attributed to the minimum degree of risk and cost.

Second conceptfocuses on future structure of the company. The existing structure will be modernized.

This strategy assumes the maximum development of communications and the development of new organizational relationships. The productivity of the organizational structure of the company increases, since data archives are rationally distributed, the volume of information circulating through the system channels decreases, and a balance is achieved between the tasks being solved.

To its main disadvantages should include:

Significant costs at the first stage associated with the development of a general concept and research of all divisions of the company;

The presence of psychological tension caused by anticipated changes in the structure of the company and, as a result, changes in the staffing table and job responsibilities

Merits of this strategy are:

Rationalization of the organizational structure of the company;

Maximum employment of all employees;

High professional level;

Integration of professional functions through the use of computer networks.

The new information technology in the company should be such that the levels of information and the subsystems that process it are linked together by a single array of information. In this case, two requirements are imposed. First, the structure of the information processing system must correspond to the distribution of powers in the firm. Secondly, the information within the system must function in such a way as to adequately reflect the levels of control.

3.5. Areas of business that most effectively use the achievements of information technology

In industry, simulation systems make it possible to dispense with expensive testing and reduce the time to create products. Computer-aided design systems accelerate the design of complex products, making it possible to better use the potential of working groups. The electronic data transmission system allows for more efficient enterprise management, fast correspondence between partners, allows you to create working groups within the corporation that are not geographically united, and even due to the difference in time zones, to extend the time of work on projects.

New payment systems, card systems, electronic wallets, electronic clearing systems based on the achievements of IT are emerging in the banking system. Initially, the cards used the principle of magnetic tape, later it was possible to create microcircuits with a miniature size, great capabilities and better protection.

New IT makes it possible to expand the scope of services, speed up payments, and reduce the cost of money turnover. The entertainment industry actively, in a variety of ways uses the achievements of information technology. This is the development of new computer games, new attractions, the use of IT in film and video production.

3.6. Dangers and difficulties in using IT

Complex software has flaws that can be exploited by outsiders (hackers) and exploited to their advantage. For example, a hacker stole about $ 7,000 from credit cards of Parex Bank, and a database on all cars credited to the hijacking not only from the former USSR, but also passing through the Interpol search bases, disappeared from the computers of the police of one Baltic republic. To prevent unauthorized access, expensive security systems are used, software is being improved.

When using software, there is a possibility of data loss from the action of computer viruses and unauthorized persons (hackers) who use software flaws. Due to the increasing cost of information, the losses can be very significant. For protection, you have to use special programs - antiviruses.

The information technology user faces the problem of choosing an information technology platform, since in the future he will depend on the manufacturer of this platform.

The ease of replication of information products makes it easy to violate the copyrights of the IP developer. This applies primarily to audio and video products, as well as various software.

As a result of the development of information technology and the high profitability of projects, many firms have been attracted to the industry. Therefore, a situation of perfect competition has been created. The result of today's intense competition will be the improvement of IT, new industries will appear, the supply market will become more transparent.

Questions for self-control

1. IT Toolkit.
2. Centralized and decentralized information processing.
3. Choice of IT implementation options.
4. Areas of business that use IT most efficiently.
5. Difficulties in using IT.
6. Economic laws of IT development.

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The beginning of the XXI century. characterized by the penetration of information technology into all spheres of human activity. Today, the personal computer is the most common information processing device. A new information processing industry is emerging based on computer and telecommunication information technologies. Primary information is processed into information of a new quality with the help of hardware, software and mathematical support of this process. Of these tools, it is possible to single out software tools that serve as software tools for information technology.

Information Technology Toolkit- one or more interconnected software products for a certain type of computer, the technology of work in which allows you to achieve the goal set by the user.

As a toolkit, you can use common types of software products for a personal computer: text editors and processors, graphic editors and desktop publishing systems, computer-aided design systems, spreadsheets, database management systems, as well as electronic notebooks and calendars, functional information systems, and information retrieval systems, etc.

Below is an overview of the software. More detailed programs of widespread use are considered in separate chapters.

Text editors and processors

Programs designed to create and process words using a computer are divided into two categories: text editors and word processors. Text editors are the simplest programs used for typing and the most primitive text editing. As a rule, they do not have advanced formatting tools (this is the process of changing the parameters of text, graphic and table objects in a document), as well as the ability to work with graphic objects. A classic example of a text editor is Windows Notepad. Text editors designed to work with the complicated structure of text documents, with the inclusion of graphic information, belong to the group word processors. They contain much more advanced means of creating and formatting documents. The main tools for preparing text documents include Word processors from Microsoft, WordPerfect from Corel, as well as free packages Kingsoft Office 2013, LibreOffice, OpenOffice, StarOffice.

When working with a text editor, there are several stages of document processing.

Entering text. The process can be carried out in several ways:

• typing using the keyboard is the most common; is a technologically fairly simple process, if you do not need complex text formatting;
• translation of documents in paper form into electronic. Many text documents are in the form of paper editions: payment order forms, business letters, financial documents and much more. Huge amounts of information are transmitted in the form of faxes and photocopies. To quickly and correctly edit such documents, publish them in the future, you need software that creates an electronic image of a paper document, as well as appropriate devices - scanners;
• handwriting input. The method has been commercially introduced in recent years and is implemented, as a rule, in portable pocket computers (PDAs) and some mobile devices using a device called an electronic pen, which looks like a regular pencil. The convenience of PDAs and mobile devices is that they are easily transported, do not require a keyboard, and are silent.

Editing... Editing means changing the typed text and giving it the proper look, whether it be simple removal of erroneous characters, inserting text arrays, or the so-called formatting, which is mainly associated with changing the font and paragraph parameters or setting page parameters.

Saving the document. Saving in one of the many existing formats is the final stage of the main work on the preparation of a text document. This stage is very important, since the need to preserve the result of the work is obvious. In addition, the choice of the format of the saved document depends on where and how they will work with it further. Problems often arise when opening a document, especially on another platform, as it may turn out that all the text design has disappeared, pictures have disappeared, the text is unreadable, etc. To avoid this, you should save the document in the most appropriate format.

Publication... Depending on the type of presentation of the document, three types of publication can be distinguished:

• printing the document, i.e. making a hard copy on paper or transparencies. The need to create a printed form of a document arises for the preparation of various kinds of documentation, scientific papers, textbooks, fiction, etc. Printing of documents is carried out by means of printers and other printing equipment;
• electronic publication, which means the final presentation of a document in electronic form, with the possibility of transferring it in the same form to other users and reading it from the screen, regardless of the method of transfer: but by e-mail, on a flash drive, over a local network and in other ways;
• web documents intended to be presented on the Internet as web pages.

1.Concept, goals and components of IT

Technology when translated from Greek (techne) means art, skill, skill, and these are nothing more than processes aimed at achieving certain set goals. The process should be determined by the strategy chosen by the person and implemented using a combination of various means and methods.

Under material production technology understand the process determined by a set of means and methods of processing, manufacturing, changing the state, properties, form of raw materials or materials. Technology changes the quality or the original state of matter in order to obtain a tangible product.

Material Technology product resources material

production

Example

Information is one of the most valuable resources of society along with such traditional material types of resources as oil, gas, minerals, etc., which means that the process of its processing, by analogy with the processing of material resources, can be perceived as technology. Then the following definition is valid.

Information technology (IT)- a process that uses a set of tools and methods for collecting, processing and transmitting data to obtain information of a new quality about the state of an object, process or phenomenon (information product).

Under information technology do not understand the use of a computer.

Target information technology- This is the production of information for its analysis by a person, and making decisions based on it, to perform an action.

Target material production technologies- release of products that meet the needs of a person or a system.

Example : To complete the test in mathematics, each student applies his own technology for processing the initial information (initial data of the tasks). The information product (the results of solving problems) will depend on the technology of the solution that the student chooses. Manual information technology is commonly used. If we use a new information technology capable of solving such problems, then the information product will have a different quality.

2.Main characteristics and principle of the new IT

In modern society, the main technical means of information processing technology is a personal computer, which significantly influenced the concept of constructing and using technological processes and the quality of effective information. The introduction of a personal computer into the information sphere and the use of telecommunication means of communication have determined a new stage in the development of information technology and a change in its name due to the addition of one of the synonyms: "new", "computer" or "modern". Then the following definition is valid.

New Information Technology (NIT) Is an information technology with a “friendly” user interface, using personal computers and telecommunications facilities.

There are three principles of BAT:

 interactive (dialogue) mode of working with a computer;

 integration (interconnection) with other software products;  flexibility in the process of changing data and setting tasks.

More accurate should be considered nevertheless the term new, but not computer information technology, since it reflects in its structure not only technologies based on the use of computers, but also technologies based on other technical means, especially on the means of providing telecommunications.

3.IT Toolkit

The implementation of the technological process of material production is carried out using various technical means: equipment, machine tools, tools, conveyor lines, etc. By analogy, there should be something similar for information technology. Such technical means of information production will be the hardware and software of this process. With their help, the primary information is processed into information of a new quality. Let us single out software products separately from these tools and call them a toolkit, and for greater clarity, we will give a definition of an information technology toolkit.

Information Technology Toolkit - this is one or more interconnected software products for a certain type of computer, the technology of work in which (s) allows you to achieve the goal.

Examples of information technology toolkit:

 Word processors - programs designed to create and process electronic texts of any possibility;

 Tabular processors - programs designed to process information using spreadsheets;

 Graphics processors - programs designed for processing raster and vector graphics, etc.

 DBMS - programs designed to create and process information in the database;

 Programs for mathematical modeling and analysis of the data obtained;

 Programs for presentation graphics are designed for automatic or semi-automatic output of data from a computer to information display devices.

 Program translators from one national language to another;

 Optical character recognition systems - convert an electronic image of a text document (obtained, for example, from a scanner) into an electronic test document of various formats;  CAD - systems.

4.Ratio of Information Technology and Information Systems (IS)

Information technology is closely related to information systems, which are its main environment. At first glance, it might seem that the definitions of information technology and system are very similar to each other. However, it is not.

Information technology is a process consisting of clearly regulated rules for performing operations and actions on data stored in computers. The main information technology goal- as a result of targeted actions to process the primary information, to obtain the information necessary for the user.

Information system is an environment, the constituent elements of which are computers, computer networks, software products, databases, people, etc. The main purpose of the information system- organization of storage and transmission of information. Information system is a human-computer information processing system.

Implementation of information system functions impossible without knowledge of information technology oriented towards it. Information technology can exist outside the sphere of the information system.

Example : Information technology works in a word processor environment, which is not an information system.

Figure 1 - Block diagram of a generalized information system

Information technology- a set of clearly defined purposeful actions of personnel to process information on a computer.

Information system- human-computer system allowing to implement the selected information technology.

5.The main components of IT

The technological process of information processing is presented in the form of a hierarchical structure according to 4 levels:

Stages- comparatively long technological processes of information processing.

Example : How to understand stage information technology. The technology for creating a document form template in a word processor environment consists of the following stages:

 stage 1 - creation of a permanent part of the form in the form of texts and tables;

 stage 2 - creating a permanent part of the form in the form of a frame, where the drawing is then placed;  stage 3 - creation of the variable part of the form;  stage 4 - protection and preservation of shape.

Operations- processes as a result of which, using a set of actions, a specific object is created.

Example : How to understand operation information technology. Consider stage 2 of the technology for creating a permanent part of the document form in the form of a frame in a word processor environment, which consists of the following operations:

 operation 1 - creating a frame;

 operation 2 - frame setting;

 operation 3 - embedding a picture into the frame.

Action- a set of standard work techniques leading to the performance of the set operation.

Example : How to understand action information technology. Consider operation 3 - embedding a picture into a frame in a word processor environment, which consists of the following actions:

 action 1 - placing the cursor in the frame;

 action 2 - execution of the INSERT, Picture command;

 step 3 - setting the parameter values ​​in the dialog box.

Elementary operations- user actions to control input-output devices. Example ... How to understand elementary operation information technology. It can be: entering a command, clicking the right mouse button, selecting a menu item, etc.

Figure 2 - Representation of information technology in the form of a hierarchical structure, consisting of stages, actions, operations

It is necessary to understand that the development of information technology and its further use should be reduced to the fact that you must first master a set of elementary operations, the number of which is limited. From this limited number of elementary operations, an action is composed, from actions, operations are composed that determine a particular technological stage, and their combination forms a technological process (technology).

The technological process does not have to consist of all the levels shown in the figure. It can start at any level and not include, for example, stages or operations, but consist only of actions.

Information technology, like any other, must answer the following requirements :

 ensure a high degree of dismemberment of the entire information processing process into stages, operations, actions;

 include the entire set of elements necessary to achieve the goal;

 stages, actions, operations should be standardized and unified as possible.

6.Information technology development stages

There are different points of view on what criteria to classify the stages of IT development. Common to all approaches is that with the advent of the personal computer, a new stage in the development of information technology began.

In terms of tool development:

 First stage(until the second half of the 19th century) - "Manual" IT. Tools: pen, ink, book. Communications: manually via mail, letters. the main goal: presentation of information in the required form.

 Second phase(from the end of the 19th century to the middle of the 20th century) - “mechanical” IT. Tools :

typewriter, telephone, voice recorder. Communications: train, car, ship. the main goal: providing information in the required form by more convenient means.

 Third stage(40-60 years of the XX century) “electric” IT. Tools: mainframes, corresponding software, electr. typewriters, voice recorders, copier. Communications: a more advanced mail system. the main goal: shift from the form of providing information to the formation of its content.

 Fourth stage(70-80 years of the twentieth century) "electronic" IT. Tools: large computers and created on their basis ACS (automated control systems) and ISS (information retrieval systems). Communications: Beginning of creation of local and global computer networks. the main goal: the formation of the content side of information for various areas of management.

 Fifth stage(from the 80s to the present) "computer" IT or "new" IT. Tools: a personal computer with a wide range of software. Communications: global and local computer networks. the main goal: the formation of meaningful information.

In terms of information processing development:

 First stage(50-60 years). The emergence of information systems for data processing. the main goal: elimination of routine operations.

 Second phase(60-70 years). The emergence of information management systems. the main goal: secondary processing of the accumulated data in information processing systems, the formation of the necessary reports.

 Third stage(70s). The emergence of an information system for decision support. the main goal: to obtain a solution to the problem at the expense of mathematical modeling on a computer of the investigated object, phenomenon.

 Fourth stage(from the 80s to the present). The emergence of a personal computer, the Internet and the active development of applied programs, local and global networks. the main goal: survival of an enterprise, a firm in the market through the use of new information systems and information technologies.

7.Problems and methodology of using IT

The main problem with IT is that they quickly become obsolete and replaced by new ones. .

Example : The technology of batch processing of programs on a mainframe was replaced by the technology of work on a personal computer. The telegraph has transferred all its functions to the telephone. Telex has transferred most of its functions to fax and e-mail, etc.

When introducing new IT, it is necessary to assess the risk of lagging behind competitors. The turnover periods range from several months to one year. If, in the process of introducing new information technology, this factor is not given due attention, it is possible that by the time the company is transferred to the new information technology, it will become outdated and it will be necessary to take measures to modernize it.

There are three information processing methodologies:

Centralized information processing on computers and computing centers was the first historically developed technology. Large computing centers (CCs) for collective use were created, equipped with large computers (in our country - EC computers). The use of such computers made it possible to process large arrays of input information and receive, on this basis, various types of information products, which were then transmitted to users. Dignity :

- ease of implementation of new technologies due to their centralized adoption;

- the ability of the user to access large amounts of information in the form of a database and information products of a wide range; - availability of qualified computer maintenance. Flaws :

- limited possibilities of users in the process of obtaining and using information;

- lack of interest of the CC specialists in fast and high-quality problem solving.

Decentralized information processing associated with the emergence of the PC and the development of telecommunications.

Dignity :

Flexibility of the structure, providing room for user initiatives; strengthening the responsibility of the lowest level of employees;

Reducing the needs of using a central computer; fuller realization of the user's creativity.

Flaws :

The complexity of standardization due to the large number of unique developments;

Psychological rejection of users of the standards recommended by the CC and ready-made programs; - uneven development of the IT level in local places.

Advantages and disadvantages described centralized and decentralized information technology has led to the need to adhere to the line of reasonable application of both approaches.

Rational methodology. Reasonable use centralized and decentralized methodology.

Distribution of duties : VTS- is responsible for the development of a general strategy for using IT, helps the user in work and training, sets standards and policies for the use of software and hardware. Staff- adheres to the instructions of the Computer Center and develops its technologies in accordance with the general plan of the organization.

8.The concept of IT implementation in the enterprise

When introducing information technology in a company, it is necessary to choose one of two basic concepts that reflect the prevailing points of view on the existing structure of the organization and the role of computer information processing in it.

1 concept: Focuses on the existing structure of the company. Information technology adapts to the organizational structure and only modernization of working methods takes place.

Dignity: The degree of risk from the introduction of new information technology is minimal, since the costs are insignificant and the organizational structure of the company does not change.

Flaw: the need for continuous changes in the form of information presentation, adapted to specific technological methods and technical means.

2 concept: Focuses on future structure of the company. The existing structure will be modernized.

This strategy assumes the maximum development of communications and the development of new organizational relationships. The productivity of the organizational structure of the company increases, since data archives are rationally distributed, the volume of information circulating through the system channels decreases, and a balance is achieved between the tasks being solved.

The main approach in this concept:

Analysis of the existing processing technology;

Identification of elements to be automated; - Development or purchase of the necessary IT; - Implementation of new IT.

Dignity :

Rationalization of the organizational structure of the company;

Maximum employment of workers; high professional level; - integration of functions through the use of computer networks.

Flaws :

Significant costs at the first stage of IT implementation;

The presence of psychological tension caused by changes in the structure of the company - staffing table, job responsibilities.

9.The structure of the control system. Implementation of automated and automatic control

Management e is the function of the system, which ensures either the preservation of its basic properties, or its development in the direction of a given goal.

System- a set of elements are inextricably interconnected with each other, the exclusion of any element leads to inoperability.

Management processes are inherent in both animate and inanimate nature. We face management everywhere in our lives. This is the state, which is governed by the appropriate structures; it is also a computer; running under program control, etc.

The combination of a control object (OC), a managing body (UO) and an executive body (IO) forms a control system, in which two subsystems are distinguished: a control subsystem and a controlled subsystem. (Fig. 3)

In the process of functioning of this system, the governing body (MA) receives information I OS about the current state of the control object (OU) and input information I BX about the state of the control object. Deviations of the control object from the specified state occurs under the influence of external disturbances (V). Comparison of information I BX and I OS in the governing body is the emergence of management information I Have, which acts on the executive body that generates a control action (U), which eliminates the deviation in the control object.

Figure 3 - Enlarged structural diagram of the control system

10.Decision making process.

In an automated system, the responsibility for the adopted control is assigned to a person.

When making a decision, a person takes into account a huge number of different factors and the process itself is multi-stage, therefore, when implementing control, it is difficult to exclude a person from the system. The decision-making process has the following stages:

 Analysis of information (AI);

 Statement of the problem (PZ);

 Generation of alternatives (GA);

 Selection of criterion (VC);

 Analysis of alternatives (АА);

 Choice of alternatives (VA);

 Choice of solution (VR);

Figure 4 shows the relationship of the steps in the decision-making process. On the basis of the analysis (AI) of informing information I OS from the control object and information I BX from the conceptual model of the control object, a person sets a problem (PZ), the solution of which should allow the object to be controlled in the best way in this situation. However, there are always several solutions (alternatives), therefore, the next step is the generation of alternatives (GA), i.e. putting forward possible solutions to the problem. The solution to the problem must be consistent with the overall goal of management, therefore, it is impossible to choose an alternative if there is no selection criterion that reflects the goal of management. Thus, the next stage is the choice of the criterion (CK) for solving the problem. At the stage of analyzing alternatives, they are studied according to the selected criterion, and then the final choice of one of the alternatives (VA) is carried out. The selected alternative is additionally analyzed, and a final decision (VR) is issued, which takes the form of a flow of control information I U in organizational systems.

Figure 4 - Stages of the decision-making process

11.Management structure of the organization. The main types of information technology in administrative management

Control- a set of control actions aimed at ensuring that the actual course of the process corresponds to the desired one.

IT Management (MIS) - creates management reports to help managers facilitate decision-making. This technology solves the following tasks: assessing the planned state of the control object, assessing the deviation from the planned state, identifying the reasons for the deviation, and analyzing possible solutions and actions.

Strategic level

accountant, bosses

Functional level of subdivisions,

Laboratory assistant, cashier, methodologist,

Operational level foreman, foreman

The organization is divided into management levels:

 Operating - requests for information on current operations are processed, which are implemented into operational actions and predefined conclusions. Core technology: IT data processing. Basic operations- tracking orders and processes, accounting for material and financial resources, accounting for data on human resources

 Functional - provides a solution to tasks requiring preliminary analysis of information prepared at the 1st level. Functional control technology: a) IT management (annual budget, sales and procurement management, movement and capital analysis). b) IT decision support (commercial analysis of the region, production planning, cost-benefit analysis).

 Strategic - ensures the development of management decisions aimed at achieving the strategic goals of the organization. Structural Control Technologies: a) executive technologies (executive systems, presentation of sales, budget); b) decision support technology (planning the profit of the enterprise); c) expert system (receiving answers to non-standard questions).

As the level rises, the complexity of the task and the decision-making time increase.

The main types of IT in administrative management:

 IT data processing "TPS - Transaction Processing System" - designed to solve well-structured tasks for which there are necessary input data and algorithms and other standard processing procedures are known .;

 IT management "MIS - Management Information System" - is to create various aggregated reports on various processes in the organization;

 IT office automation "OAS - Office Automation System" - for organizing and supporting communication processes within an organization with an external environment based on computer networks, as well as information processing facilities;

 IT decision support "DSS - Decision Support System" - designed to develop a solution as a result of an iterative (approximation) process;

 IT expert systems "AI - Artificial Intelligence" - are designed to receive expert advice on the problems that these systems have accumulated knowledge about.

12. Purpose, characteristics and main components of information technology data processing (ITOD)

Purpose and characteristics

Information technology data processing is designed to solve well

structured problems for which the necessary input data are available and algorithms and other standard procedures for their processing are known. Structured task Is a problem where all its elements and algorithms for solving are known.

Example : In the information system, it is necessary to implement the task of calculating wages.

This is a structured problem where the solution algorithm is fully known. The routine nature of this task is determined by the fact that the calculations of all charges and deductions are very simple, but their volume is very large, since they must be repeated many times monthly for all categories of workers.

Partially structured task Is a task where you can partially select elements and write an algorithm for its solution.

Example : It is required to make a decision to eliminate the situation when the need for labor resources to complete one of the complex works on time exceeds their availability. The ways to solve this problem can be different, for example:

- allocation of additional funding to increase the number of employees;

- assignment of the end of work to a later date, etc. As you can see, in this situation, the information system can help a person make a particular decision if it provides him with information about the progress of work in all the necessary parameters.

Unstructured task type- this is a task where it is impossible to select elements and formulate an algorithm.

Example : Try to formalize the relationship in your student group. Probably, you can hardly do it. This is due to the fact that psychological and social factors are essential for this task, which are very difficult to describe algorithmically.

This technology is applied at the level of operating activities of low-skilled personnel in order to automate routine operations of managerial work. Therefore, the introduction of information technologies and systems at this level will significantly increase the productivity of personnel and even lead to the need to reduce the number of employees.

At the level of operational activities, the following tasks are solved:

Processing of data on operations carried out by the company;

Creation of periodic reports on the state of affairs in the company;

Receiving answers to current inquiries and formalizing them in the form of paper documents.

Features of this technology:

Since any company is prescribed by law to have and store data about its activities, then any company must have this technology;

Only well-structured tasks are solved here;

Execution of the bulk of work in automatic mode with minimal human participation;

Use of detailed data on objects for which accounting is kept; - Emphasis on the chronology of events (fixing all actions in the database) accounting by time; - Requiring minimal assistance in solving problems from specialists.

Main components

The main components of information technology data processing are shown in Figure 6.

Data collection. As a firm produces a product or service, its every action is accompanied by appropriate data records. Usually, the actions of the firm affecting the external environment are singled out as the operations performed by the firm.

Data processing. To create information from the incoming data, reflecting the activities of the company, are used the following typical operations :

 classification or grouping... Primary data is usually in the form of codes consisting of one or more characters. These codes, which express certain characteristics of objects, are used to identify and group records. Example. When calculating wages, each record includes the code (personnel number) of the employee, the code of the department in which he works, the position held, etc. In accordance with these codes, you can make different groupings.

 sorting, with the help of which the sequence of records is ordered;

 calculations, including arithmetic and logical operations. These operations performed on data make it possible to obtain new data;

 enlargement or aggregation, which serves to reduce the amount of data and is implemented in the form of calculating the total or average values.

Data storage. Much of the data at the operational level needs to be stored for later use, either here or at another level. Databases are created to store them.

Creation of reports. In information technology data processing, it is necessary to create documents for the management and employees of the company. In this case, documents can be created both upon request or in connection with an operation carried out by the company (special), and at the end of each month, quarter or year (periodic).

face environment

Figure 6 - Block diagram of information technology components of data processing

13. Purpose, characteristics and main components of information technology management (ITU)

Purpose and characteristics

Information technology management intended to meet the information needs of decision-makers in the organization.

The essence of information technology management consists in creating various aggregated reports on various processes in the organization.

Information technology management is ideally suited to meet the similar information needs of workers at different levels of the firm's management. The information they provide contains information about the past, present and probable future of the company. This information takes the form of regular or ad hoc management reports :

 Regular reports are created in accordance with a set schedule that determines the time of their creation, for example, a monthly analysis of the company's sales.

 Special reports are created at the request of managers or in connection with the operation carried out by the company.

 B summarizing reports data are combined into separate groups, sorted and presented as subtotals and final totals for individual fields.

 Comparative reports contain data obtained from various sources or classified according to various criteria and used for comparison purposes.

 Emergency reports contain data of an exceptional (extraordinary) nature.

When using the principles of variance management in the company, the following requirements are imposed on the reports generated:

 the information in the report should be sorted by the value of the critical indicator for the given deviation;

 it is advisable to show all deviations together so that the manager can grasp the existing connection between them;

 the report must show the quantitative deviation from the norms.

At this stage, the following data processing tasks are solved:

 Assessment of the planned state of the control object;

 Assessment of deviations from the planned state;

 Identification of the reasons for deviations;

 Analysis of possible solutions and actions.

Main components

Input information comes from systems of the operational level (information processing system). The output information is generated in the form of management reports in a form convenient for making a decision.

Figure 7 - Block diagram of the components of information technology management

14.Purpose, characteristics and main components of information technology decision support (ITSS)

Purpose and characteristics

Decision support systems and the corresponding information technology appeared mainly through the efforts of American scientists in the late 70s - early 80s, which was facilitated by the widespread use of personal computers, standard software packages, as well as advances in the creation of artificial intelligence systems. The main feature information technology decision support is a qualitatively new method of organizing human-computer interaction.

IT decision support are designed to work out a solution as a result of an iterative (approximation) process.

Figure 8 - Components of the decision support system

Figure 8 shows that decision support systems include raw data and mathematical models to help the decision maker solve problems after processing them on a computer.

The iterative process involves:

 decision support system as a computational link (DSS);

 a person who sets the input data and evaluates the result of calculations (control link).

Figure 9 - Decision support information system as an iterative process

Information technology characteristics:

 Orientation of solving poorly structured tasks;

 Data processing with the capabilities of mathematical models, methods of solving problems based on them;

 Targeting a non-professional user;

 High adaptability, allowing to adapt to hardware and software, and to user requirements.

Decision support information technology can be used at any level of management. In addition, decisions made at different levels of government often need to be coordinated. Therefore, an important function of both systems and technologies is the coordination of decision-makers, both at different levels of government, and at the same level.

Main components

The decision support system includes three main components: a database, a model database and a software subsystem, which consists of a database management system (DBMS), a model base management system (BMMS) and a system for managing the interface between the user and the computer.

Database. It plays an important role in information technology decision support.

Figure 10 - The main components of information technology decision support

Database plays an important role in information technology decision support. The data can be used directly by the user for calculations using mathematical models. Let's consider data sources and their features. Some of the data comes from an operational level information system. This data must be pre-processed.

Data from external sources are important, especially for supporting decision-making at the top levels of government. The required external data should include data on competitors, national and global economies. In contrast to internal data, external data is usually acquired from specialized data collection organizations.

At present, the issue of including another source of data in the database is being widely studied - documents that include records, letters, contracts, orders, etc. If the content of these documents is recorded in memory and then processed according to some key characteristics (suppliers, consumers, dates, types of services, etc.), then the system will receive a new powerful source of information.

Model base... The purpose of creating models is to describe and optimize some object or process. The use of models provides analysis in decision support systems. Models, based on the mathematical interpretation of the problem, with the help of certain algorithms, help to find information that is useful for making the right decisions.

Example: The linear programming model makes it possible to determine the most profitable production program for the release of several types of products under given resource constraints.

There are many types of models and how they can be classified, for example, by purpose of use, scope of possible applications, how variables are evaluated, and so on.

15.Purpose, characteristics and main components of information technology office automation (ITAO)

Purpose and characteristics

Historically, automation began in manufacturing and then spread to the office, initially aiming only at automating routine secretarial work. As the means of communication developed, the automation of office technologies interested specialists and managers, who saw in it an opportunity to increase their productivity. Office automation is not intended to replace the existing traditional personnel communication system, but only to supplement it.

An automated office is attractive to managers at all levels of management in the company because it maintains internal communication between staff and provides them with new means of communication with the external environment.

IT office automation - are designed to organize and support communication processes within an organization with an external environment based on computer networks, as well as information processing facilities.

Office automation technologies are used by managers, specialists, secretaries and office workers, and they are especially attractive for group problem solving. They increase the productivity of secretaries and office workers and enable them to cope with the increasing volume of work. Improving the decisions made by managers as a result of their better communication can ensure the economic growth of the firm.

Main components

Figure 11 - The main components of information technology office automation

Currently, there are several dozen software products for computers and non-computer hardware that provide office automation technology: word processor, spreadsheet processor, e-mail, electronic calendar, audio-mail, computer and teleconferencing, video text, image storage, as well as specialized management programs. activities: document management, control over the execution of orders, etc.

DB- is a structured system for storing files on a computer. Information comes from the external environment and operating systems.

Computer office technology :

Word processors are programs designed to create and process electronic texts of any kind.

Table processors are programs designed to process information using spreadsheets.

Image storage technology - programs designed to store copies of text documents in electronic archives.

Programs for mathematical calculations, modeling and analysis of experimental data are designed to solve mathematical problems in the most convenient environment with their output using diagrams.

Presentation graphics programs are designed for automatic or semi-automatic output of data from a computer to information display devices.

Programs for the translation of electronic text from one national language to another.

 Email- a program designed to exchange textual information using computer networks, including files attached to them (Internet Mail, Outlook).

 electronic calendar- a tool for storing and manipulating the work schedule of managers and employees of the organization (Outlook).

 teleconferences- a program that allows group services (Outlook).

 audio and video mail- similar to e-mail, but the transmission of information of a larger volume.

 audio and video conferencing- communication via the Internet in real time.

 fax- transfer of images of documents from one computer to another.

16.Purpose, characteristics and main components of information technology expert systems (ITES)

Purpose and characteristics

The greatest progress among computer information systems has been noted in the development of expert systems based on the use of artificial intelligence... Expert systems enable a manager or specialist to receive expert advice on any problems about which these systems have accumulated knowledge.

IT expert systems intended to receive expert advice on

the problems about which these systems have accumulated knowledge ("systems with artificial intelligence").

Artificial Intelligence - it is the ability of a computer to perform actions that would be called intellectual if they came from a person.

Solving special problems requires special knowledge. However, not every company can afford to have experts on all issues related to its work on its staff, or even invite them every time a problem arises. The main idea of ​​ES technologies is to get his knowledge from an expert and load it into the computer memory to use it whenever the need arises.

When creating an ES, there are problems:

 what is knowledge;

 how to take this knowledge voluntarily from an expert;  how to download them to your computer;  how to find them on your computer.

Expert - a person with knowledge.

Knowledge - it is a rule that must be implemented when certain conditions are met.

Main components

The main components of the information technology used in the expert system are the user interface, the knowledge base, the interpreter, and the system creation module.

 System creation module- serves to create a set of rules in the knowledge base. Two approaches can be distinguished here: a) the use of algorithmic languages; b) the use of conventional expert systems.

 Knowledge base- contains facts describing the problem area, as well as the logical functional connection of these facts. The basis of the knowledge base is “rules”, which consist of a condition (which may or may not be true) and an action (which should be performed if the condition is true).

 Interpreter- a part of the system that processes knowledge stored in the knowledge base. The technology of working with the interpreter comes down to a gradual examination of rules by rule.

 User interface- designed to enter requests into the expert system and receive output information from it. Uses an interface for entering information and commands into the expert system and receiving. Commands include parameters that guide the processing of knowledge. Information is usually given in the form of values ​​assigned to specific variables.

Figure 12 - The main components of information technology expert systems

17.Information processing using hypertext and multimedia technologies.

Typically, any text is presented as one long string of characters that is read in one direction. Hypertext technology consists in the fact that the text is presented as multidimensional, i.e. with a hierarchical structure of the network type. The material of the text is divided into fragments. Each fragment visible on the computer screen, supplemented by numerous connections with other fragments, allows you to clarify information about the object under study and move in one or more directions along the selected connection.

Hypertext is a technology for presenting unstructured, freely growing knowledge.

Under hypertext understand a system of information objects (articles), interconnected by directed links, forming a network. Each object is associated with the information panel of the screen, where the user can associatively select one of the links. Hypertext processing has opened up new opportunities for mastering information that are qualitatively different from the traditional ones. Instead of searching for information by the corresponding search key, hypertext technology involves moving from one information object to another, taking into account their semantic and semantic coherence.

WWW (World Wide Web - World Wide Web) is the most modern means of organizing network resources. It is built on the basis hypertext presentation of information. Hypertext in the understanding of WWW is text that contains links to other parts of this document, to other documents

Hypertext consists of:

 informational material - articles consisting of a title and text.

 hypertext thesaurus - an automated dictionary designed to search for words by their semantic content.

 list of main topics - contains the titles of all reference networks.

 Alphabetical Dictionary - Contains a list of all informational articles in alphabetical order.

Multimedia - interactive technology that provides work with still images, video images, animation, text and sound.

One of the first tools for creating multimedia technology was hypertext technology, which provides work with text information, images, sound, and speech. In this case, hypertext technology acted as an authoring software tool. The emergence of multimedia systems was facilitated by technological progress; the operational and external memory of computers has increased, wide graphic capabilities of computers have appeared, the quality of video equipment has increased, laser compact disks have appeared, etc.

Operating systems with WIMP interface (Ms Windows, MacOS, X-Windows) include hardware multimedia support, which allows users to play digitized video, audio, animation graphics, and connect various musical synthesizers and instruments. Media files are stored on CD-ROM, hard disk, or network server. The digitized video is usually stored in files with the .AVI extension, audio information - in files with the .WAV, .MP3 extension, audio in the form of a MIDI interface - in files with the .MID extension. To support them, a file subsystem has been developed that provides information transfer from CD-ROM at an optimal speed, which is essential when playing audio and video information.

IT hypertext and multimedia is a technology for creating systems of information objects, interconnected by directed links, forming a network. Each object is associated with a screen panel, where the user associatively selects one of the links.

18.Problems to be solved in production. The main types of information technology in production

In production, the main goal of introducing information technology is complex automation, design and production of products.

This is solved by the following automated systems:

 Automated scientific research system (ASNI).

 Design Automation System (CAD).

 Automated system for technological preparation of production (ACSUP).

 Automated process control system (APCS).

 Automated production control system (ACS).

 Automated information technology systems for flexible production system management (ACSGPS).

The following systems are also distinguished:

MRP is an automated production process for manufacturing.

MRP 2 is an automated system that takes into account the orders of specific consumers. (For instance,

Figure 13 - The main components of an automated process control system

production of plastic windows).

ERP (MRP in Marketing) is an automated system that optimizes the sales process for a specific customer.

Corporate IS, Integrated IS are systems that systematize all processes in an organization.

These systems are based on 6 main types of IT.

19.Automated process control system

(APCS)

APCS - it is a closed system that provides automated collection and processing of information necessary to optimize the control of a technological object according to the accepted criterion and the implementation of control actions on a technological object.

Technological control object - a set of technological equipment and a technological process implemented on it.

Typical functions performed by the process control system:

 Measurement of physical signals and parameters.

 Control over the functioning of hardware and software.  Formation of a control task.  Implementation of management.

The functions of the process control system are subdivided into:

 Managers- regulation of technological variables; logical management of operations; adaptive control of the object as a whole.

 Information- collection, processing and presentation of information for analysis.

 Subsidiary- ensuring control over the state of hardware and software.

20.Design Automation System (CAD)

CAD - is designed to create a product in the shortest possible time, by obtaining optimal design solutions, by decomposing the design problem and subsequent synthesis of the overall design solution.

Design - This is the process of creating a description of a non-existing object, necessary for building under given conditions, on the basis of the primary description of this object. There is a non-automated (manual) and computer-aided design.

Design stages:

 Research and Development (R&D) - design research; technical assignments; part of the technical proposal; documentation.

 Development work (R&D): part of the technical proposal; outline design; technical design.

 Detail design: detail design; manufacturing; debugging and testing; commissioning.

The creation of modern products is based on a block-hierarchical approach:

 Splitting the original object into simpler components;

 Local optimization (improving the parameters of a simple object);

 Abstraction (construction of mathematical models for the operation of a simple object under given conditions);

 Repeatability (using the existing experience of creating simple objects).

CAD is designed to obtain optimal design solutions by decomposition of the design problem and the subsequent synthesis of the overall design solution.

CAD is based on the principles:

 Using complex modeling.

 Interactive interaction with the mathematical model.

 Making decisions based on mathematical models.

 Ensuring the unity of the project model at all stages of design.

 Using a unified information base for the synthesis and analysis of the project.

 Carrying out multivariate design using optimization methods.

CAD is subdivided into:

 Automation design systems - performing design procedures and operations.

 Servants are designed to maintain the operability of the designing systems.

 Object subsystems - perform one or more design procedures or operations, depending on a specific design object.

 Object-independent (invariant) - perform informational design procedures and operations, i.e. independent of the features of the designed object.

21.Automated system for conducting scientific research (ASNI)

ASNI - hardware-software complex, focused on obtaining new knowledge about the properties of the object of research. ASNI allows you to automate the process of conducting an experiment (experiment).

Main stages:

 development of experimental methods, design and manufacture of an experimental setup (automation is practically impossible).

 conducting an experiment - collecting experimental data, their accumulation and primary processing (full automation is possible).

 secondary processing of the collected information, selection of formulas and creation of mat. Models, estimation of the experimental error (partial automation is possible).  analysis of the results obtained.

The main elements of ASNI:

 Experimental setup.

 measuring and control equipment.

 communication lines.

 experiment control program.

 program for managing communication lines.

 experimental technique.

Figure 14 - Essential elements an automated research system

22.Automated control system for production and an automated system with a flexible production system (ACS and

ASUGPS)

ACS - it is a complex hierarchically controlled system consisting of employees of the administrative apparatus, a set of technical means, various techniques and tools, data carriers that allow to optimize the decision-making process.

Control object - a set of processes inherent in a given enterprise for converting resources into finished products.

The complexity of production management is due to the following reasons:

 a large number of dissimilar elements;

 a high degree of their interconnection in the production process;

 uncertainty of the results of many processes;

 the objects and subjects of management are people, their behavior is not so obvious and straightforward;

 constant change of the enterprise (non-stationary process).

ASUGPS allows you to solve the following tasks:

 Ability to quickly restructure to release new products due to mobility and flexibility;

 Availability of a high technical level of equipment capable of implementing progressive technological processes;

 Opportunity to contribute to solving problems of improving the work of workers and raising their qualifications;

 Creation of prerequisites for blurring the lines between mental and physical labor;  Release of workers from heavy physical labor.

Specifications :

 the ability to work autonomously without human intervention with automatic performance of all basic operations;

 automatic execution of all main and auxiliary operations;

 flexibility to meet the requirements of small-scale production;  simplicity of adjustment and elimination of equipment failures;  compatibility with various equipment.

Kinds flexible production system :

 flexible automated section;  flexible automated line;  flexible automated workshop.

Part flexible production system may include equipment:

 flexible technological module (GTM - technological equipment with CNC, made on the basis of a micro-computer).

 warehouse module (ASM is a production unit that allows you to automate warehouse operations).

 auxiliary module (designed to provide technological modules).

 flexible control and measuring module (GKIM - for quality control of operations in geological and technical measures).

 an automated transport module (a production unit that allows the delivery of material and equipment according to commands from a central computer).

ACSGPS allows you to implement technological equipment in automated production control systems (ACS).

23.Information technology in teaching; № "!"% :: ?????

These technologies are based on various pedagogical software tools.

Information technologies in education include:

 Educational programs- allow you to gain knowledge on selected topics;

 Training programs(simulators) - allow you to gain skills and experience in a given area of ​​knowledge;

 Game programs- serve to develop attention, thinking and skills in certain areas of knowledge;

 Control programs... - serve to test and evaluate the knowledge and skills acquired;

 Information retrieval reference systems- serve to store and search for reference information in various fields of knowledge;

 Simulation and demonstration programs- serve to research the defined areas of knowledge;

 Microworlds- serve to study fictional areas of knowledge.

Also in education, technologies are implemented that improve the quality of management of the educational process:

 METHOD for the objects of the educational process: student, teacher, curriculum;

 IT for scheduling the educational process;

 IT for the library;

 IT management to create various reports on the educational process.

24.Classification of information models.

Information model - it is a reflection of a part of the real world that is used or

researched in the form of information.

Figure 15 - Classifications of the information model

The information model is divided into:

 Conceptual model provides an integrated view of the subject area and is poorly formalized;

 Logical model is formed from a conceptual model by highlighting a specific part, its formalization and detailing;

 Mathematical model is a logical model that formalizes in the language of mathematics the relationship in the selected subject area.

 Algorithmic model is a mathematical model described using a sequence of actions that implement the achievement of a set goal.

 Programming model(program) is an algorithmic model written in a computer-understandable language (machine language).

25. Conceptual Model of Basic Information Technology

Figure 16 - Conceptual model of basic information technology

26. Composition and relationships of basic IT models.

These models function at the logical level and form a complex of interrelated models that formalize information processes during technological transformations of information and data.

Figure 17 - Composition and interaction of models in the basic information model

27.
Physical model of underlying IT

Physical layer is a software and hardware implementation of information technology.

 accumulation of data;  data management;

 knowledge representation.

Figure 18 - Physical model of basic information technology

28. The process of converting information into data

The process of translating information into data can be manual, automated and automatic.

Figure 19 - Converting information into data

Collection of information - translation of information perceived by a person into documentary form.

Training - transformation of information in accordance with the restrictions imposed on it.

Control - is aimed at preventing, identifying and eliminating errors that occur at the previous stages (most often due to the human factor).

Control is carried out in the following ways:

 visual- the document is reviewed by the responsible persons for compliance with the completeness, relevance and other characteristics of the information.

 logical- assumes the compliance of the information received with the data of previous periods or regulatory data, i.e. checking the logical consistency of the information entered.

 arithmetic- includes the calculation of the checksum by rows and columns, by parity and divisibility.

Entering information- implies entering information into technical devices in specified formats.

29.

The data processing process can be divided into three procedures:

 organization of the computing process;  data transformation procedure;  data display procedure.

Figure 20 - Organization of the computing process

Organization of the computing process is the basis for the functioning of a computer, and because of how well this process is implemented, the result of the conversion and display procedures also depends.

There are three modes of organizing the computing process:

 Batch - programs with initial data are accumulated in the computer memory, forming a package, and then, after the optimization procedures are completed, the entire package is processed on the computer in the form of one continuous task. This allows the maximum load of all computer resources;

 Time-sharing mode - It is implemented by allocating a part of the processor time for a specific program in the queue of tasks. This allows in the process of calculations to put a new task for execution and get a faster result from a small task. In this case, additional time losses are inevitable for organizing the computational process.

 Real time mode - used in the processing of data intended for the control of physical processes, i.e. in this mode, it is necessary to achieve such a reaction rate in order to be able to process the received data in a short period of time and use the obtained result to control the process.

In addition to this, the organization of the computing process can be performed on:

 single-processor system (one machine);

 multiprocessor computers (many machines).

Different systems may have different methods of organizing and maintaining the job queue. The main goal of this organization is to obtain the best possible performance:

 performance;

 resource load;

 low downtime;

 high throughput;

 reasonable waiting time in the job queue.

To do this, at the logical level, a service task model is created, it has 2 types:

 direct nature of service - the condition is the parameters of the computing system, and the solution is the performance indicators of the ORP;

 service optimization problem- the condition is the performance indicators of the ORP, and the solution, the parameters of the computing system.

30.Classification of computing systems architectures

Most systems now contain multiple processors and use parallel and pipelined processing to maximize efficiency.

Parallel processing. The need for this processing arises when it is required to reduce the time for solving problems. For parallelization, it is necessary to organize the calculations as follows:

 to compose programs in the form of parallel processing by using a special language oriented towards parallel computing;

 organize the computational process in such a way that the program being executed is automatically analyzed for the presence of an explicit or hidden parallel processing algorithm; when they are detected, their parallel processing is organized.

Conveyor processing. It allows you to increase the loading time of computer devices, due to the "splitting" of calculations into several sequential steps, the more stages of the conveyor, the higher the load can be provided by the computer device.

Parallel and pipelining are implemented using different computing systems architectures.

The most commonly used classification of computing system architectures is Flynn's classification:

Figure 21 - Structure of OKOD (one command stream, one data stream) SISD

Figure 22 - Structure of SMD (one command stream, many data streams) SIMD

Initial Results Data

Figure 24 - Structure of MISD (many command streams, one data stream) MISD There is also a classification of architectures for multiprocessor systems:

Figure 25 - Systems with bus switching

Figure 26 - Systems with matrix switching

Figure 27 - Systems with multiport memory

31.Algorithms for processing tasks in computing systems

Algorithms for processing tasks in a uniprocessor system:

 SPT algorithm- tasks are solved in decreasing order of time of its solution. To build such an algorithm, it is necessary to know in advance the possible time for solving problems (a priori).

Figure 28 - Algorithm SPT for processing jobs in a uniprocessor system

 RR Algorithm- round-robin service algorithm - tools are added to the SPT algorithm to identify short and long operations in the course of the computational process. Job applications are coming in with intensity λ in the job queue. To service the task, a constant time slice q is allocated, which is required to perform several thousand operations. If the work has been completed, the task leaves the system, otherwise it enters the queue.

Returning to the job queue

result

jobs job queue time slice

Figure 29 - Algorithm RR for processing jobs in a uniprocessor system

 FB Algorithm- a multilevel cyclical scheduling algorithm.

Jobs for work come to O 1, if it was not completed in one time quantum, then it is transferred to the next queue. This allows you to prioritize tasks.

Figure 30 - Algorithm FB for processing jobs in a uniprocessor system

Algorithms for processing tasks in a multiprocessor system:

 McNaughton's Algorithm- for processing tasks with interruptions - pre-order in descending order of time for solving and assigning tasks, the successor in the order of numbers one after another on the system processor.

 LPT algorithm- for processing tasks without interruption - tasks are assigned to the solution in descending order of the solution time on the freed processors.

1. The essence of the data display process and its implementation.

Data display- it is the output of data from computing systems for their perception by the human senses.

To this end, the data must be transformed and adapted to a form that allows analyzers of human senses to perceive information.

Main analyzers: 1. visual analyzer (information flow 80%);

2. auditory analyzer (10-15%); 3. organoleptic analyzer (2%); 4. tactile analyzer (1-3%).

display

1. Conversion- a procedure that allows, on the basis of incoming data, to obtain data that controls the information display device.

In the computer, the conversion is carried out by specialized controllers (adapters)

2. Adaptation- a process by which the data to be displayed matches the signals of the information reproducing apparatus.

3. Playback the process of converting an incoming signal (electrical) into signals perceived by a person.

4. ORP- organization of the computing process.

Examples of devices: sound-display, video-display, printing devices, etc.

2. Purpose and characteristics of the data accumulation process.

This process is designed to create, store, update and retrieve data from the information fund, which is necessary for solving management problems.

There are 4 main procedures in this process:

1. selection of stored data - it is the process of analyzing the data circulating in the system and determining, on their basis, the composition of the stored data: input, intermediate and output data.

Input data is data obtained from primary information and the creation of information. image. subject area.

Intermediate data is data formed from other data based on a transformation algorithm.

Output data is data resulting from the processing of input data according to the corresponding model and to be stored in a certain time interval.

2. Data storage - it is the process of forming and maintaining the structure of data storage in the computer memory. These structures are called databases (DB).

Their main goal is to fulfill the conditions for the absence of information redundancy and to ensure the integrity of the stored data.

3. Data update - it is the process of changing the value of data or adding it to the database in order to bring the stored data in accordance with the information available in the subject area.

4. The data retrieval procedure is - it is the process of transferring the required data from the database for transformation, display or transmission over a computer network. The following processes are used to retrieve data:

1) sorting;

2) grouping;

3) calculation;

4) aggregation (consolidation).

A structured language was created to retrieve data. queries: SQL (structure quire language).

3. Composition of models and programs of the data accumulation process.

The logical (model) level of the data accumulation process is associated with the physical level of the data accumulation process through programs that create the database structure, storage schemes in the database and work with data. This whole complex is called a DBMS (database management system).

Hardware and software level of the data accumulation process:

model model

DB selection

DBMS: model model model logical storage actualization. extraction level

prog. Create a manipulation language for a program renderer. descriptions of psred. created mediate interface of programs. operation of a computer operations with data communication, service means, programs from treatment with a database management system, other physical level, structure. DB with data (debugger for creating DBx (date, number) SQL structure storage - language) with DB actualization setting up DB maintenance by applications

4. Purpose and characteristics of the data exchange process.

Data exchange takes place in any information system. Data exchange can be carried out both inside and between separate computers. When implementing data exchange inside a computer, special system buses and a device supporting their operation are used. To implement data exchange between individual computers, computer networks (distributed computing systems) are created. The operation of computer networks is based on the OSI standard (open systems interconnection standard).

Computing networks are classified as follows:

1) by remoteness: local, global;

2) by topology: common bus, star;

3) by purpose: file exchange, use of shared resources;

4) by the principle of management: centralized, decentralized;

5) switching method: broadcast, packet switching, channel switching;

6) by type of transmission medium: electrical, radio, light, fiber optic.

There are 7 layers of the OSI standard:

1.applied;

2.representative; network-dependent levels

3. session;

4. transport;

5. network;

6.channel; network dependent levels

7. physical.

Data transmission over the communication channel:

5. Basic information technology concept. The main types of basic information technologies.

Basic IT Is a technology that is the basis for the creation of all other information technologies. Basic IT includes:

1. Multimedia technology.

It allows you to process information using images, video, animation and sound.

WIMP (windows image menu pointer) is the basis for the implementation of multimedia technology.

2. hypertext technology.

This is a technology for creating information objects, interconnected, non-structures. links forming a network.

xml is an extended markup language.

3. Information security technology.

This technology allows you to reduce the risk of using information to the required level by identifying threats to information security and eliminating them.

4. Telecommunication technology.

It provides data exchange between the elements of a computer network.

As a result of the implementation of this technology, the following information exchange architectures are formed:

1) peer-to-peer information exchange system;

2) client-server;

3) multi-tier client-server architectures;

5. Geoinformation technology.

This technology serves to implement the activities of technical and social systems operating in a space with a clearly expressed two or three-dimensional nature. Those. this technology allows building information processing using electronic cards.

Basic systems:

1) geographic information systems;

2) systems of federal and municipal government; 3) design systems (CAD); 4) military systems.

6. CASE - technologies.

They are designed to automate the process of developing new IT and systems, namely:

1) analysis and formulation of new IT;

2) design of new IT;

3) documentation (creation of documentation); 4) testing;

5) project management.

SADT is a technology for structural analysis and design of business projects (processes).

DFD is a data flow diagram technology.

UML is an object design technology.

7. Artificial intelligence technology.

This technology allows you to implement the functions:

1) accumulate knowledge about the world around, classify and evaluate them in terms of usefulness, initiate the processes of obtaining new knowledge.

2) to replenish the received knowledge with the help of logical conclusions.

3) communicate with a person in a language that is as close as possible to his natural language.

Expert systems, search engines.

6. The concept and classification of programs. Stages of the life cycle of a software product.

Program Is an ordered sequence of computer commands written in the order of execution and designed to solve the assigned tasks.

Software- a set of data processing programs and documents necessary for their operation.

Task- a problem to be solved.

Appendix Is an application program designed to solve problems from a problem area.

All programs are divided into two classes:

1. utilitarian programs- These are programs that meet the needs of the developer (simple).

2. software products Is a complex of interrelated programs designed to solve problems of mass demand, and prepared for implementation as industrial products (PPP).

Also, all programs are divided into 3 classes (in terms of licensing):

1. freeware (free) - freeware;

2. shareware - shareware;

3. commercial - distributed on the terms of the purchase of a license.

All IT specialists are divided into:

1. end user.

2. task manager - a specialist who studies a subject area and sets a task.

3. system programmer - develops and performs the installation, configuration of the OS and system software.

4. application programmer - develops and maintains software products.

5. administrator of information resources - delimits access rights to software products.

The following stages of the PCB life cycle are distinguished:

1. Research of the software market (marketing);

2. Designing the structure of the software (definition of modules, interface); 3. Programming, testing and debugging software:

a) creation of the first version (alpha version);

b) development and debugging of the beta version;

c) main release (finished program).

4. Documenting the software (creation of a set of documents);

5. Entry of PP to the market;

6. Operation of the PP and its support;

7. Removal of PP from sales and refusal to support.

32.Classification of software product design methods. According to the degree of design automation, the following are distinguished:

1. Manual design- is used in the development of software, small in terms of labor intensity and complexity.

2. Computer-aided design- designing with the use of special software tools that allow coordinating the actions of programmers and using previous developments when creating software (case tools).

PCB design approaches:

1) Structural design- sequential decomposition (decomposition of the original system into separate components).

Typical Structural Design Techniques:

Top-down design; - Modular programming; - Structured programming.

2) Information Modeling PP- based on the provisions on the defining role of data in the creation of programs, they are used to organize the storage and processing of DBMS data. The main components of this method:

Information analysis of subject areas;

Information modeling (creation of a data model); - System design of data processing functions;

Detailed design of data processing procedures.

3) Object Oriented Design (OOP) based upon:

Allocation of object classes (definition of objects that will be taken into account);

Establishment of characteristic properties of objects and methods of their processing;

Creation of a class hierarchy, inheritance of object properties and methods of their processing.

33.Stages of creating a software product. Preparation of technical specifications for design.

There are the following steps for creating a PCB:

3. Drawing up a technical assignment (TOR) for design;

4. Creation of a technical project;

5. Creation of a working project; 6. Creation of working documentation;

7. Commissioning of the PP.

To create a technical assignment, you need:

1.determine the platform of the created program (type of operating system);

2. assess the need for work in a computer network (type of network, protocol, speed);

3. determine the need to develop a program that can be ported to different platforms;

4. to substantiate the expediency of working with a database under the control of a DBMS;

5. choice of a method for solving problems;

6. develop a generalized algorithm for solving the problem;

7. determination of the functional structure of algorithms and the composition of objects; 8. determine the requirements for a set of technical means;

9. define the user interface.

34.Creation of technical design, working documentation and working design. Commissioning of the software product.

The creation of a technical project includes the following steps:

8. A detailed algorithm for data processing is being developed and the composition of objects, their properties, and processing methods is refined.

9. The composition of the system software is determined (OS, DBMS model, availability of applied software).

10. The internal structure of the software is being developed, formed by separate software modules.

11. The means of development of software modules are selected.

Creation of a working project:

1. Development of software modules and data processing methods is in progress;

2. Conducting autonomous and complex debugging (alpha - autonomous, beta - complex);

3. Creation of operational documentation;

Creation of working documentation:

1. General characteristics of the PP with an indication of the scope of its application;

2. User manual - a detailed description of the capabilities and technology of work with the PP;

3. Programmer's Guide - indicates the features of the software and its internal structure;

4. Educational systems (demo) - creation of various demo programs and hypertext help systems.

PP commissioning:

1. Creation of the basic version of the software and carrying out its trial operation (release);

2. Duplication and distribution of software (industrial operation).

7. The structure of the software product.

Basically, the software has a construction architecture in the form of a number of software modules.

Module- an independent part of the program, which has a certain purpose independently of other modules.

The structuring of programs is carried out for the convenience of development, programming, debugging and making changes to the software.

The structuring has the following goals:

1. Distribute the work among the performers, ensuring their workload and the required development time;

2. Build a schedule of design work and monitor their implementation;

3. To regulate labor costs and the cost of design work;

4. Allocation of reusable modules, implementation of their unification.

There are modules:

1. Head - controls the launch of the program (the only one);

2. Manager - calls other modules for processing;

3. Worker - performs processing functions;

4. Service - performs service functions.

35.Designing an interactive user interface and a graphical user interface.

Dialogue interface mode- ensures the interaction of the PP with the user through the exchange of messages that affect the processing of data.

Systems with conversational processes are classified into:

1. Systems with a rigid dialogue script;

2. Descriptor systems (collection of information by keywords);

3. Thesaurus systems (hypertext);

4. Systems with the language of business prose (presentation of a message in a language understandable to a professional).

The most common systems with a rigid dialogue script are:

1.menu (the user is offered a choice of processing functions from a fixed list);

2. can have a hierarchical view (submenu);

3. "request - response" action (a fixed list of possible values ​​selected from the list);

4. request by format (using keywords, phrases, or by filling out a screen form, messages are prepared).

Dialogue process is controlled according to the created scenario, for which the following are defined:

1.the moment of the beginning of the dialogue;

2. initiator of the dialogue (person, program);

3. parameters and content of the dialogue (messages, composition and structure of the menu, screen form).

4. the reaction of the program to the end of the dialogue.

The dialogue script is described using:

1. Block diagram - in which there are blocks of messages issued and processing of received responses.

2. Directed graph, the top of which is a message and an action; arcs - communication of messages and verbal descriptions.

3. Specialized object-oriented scripting languages.

Object-oriented software development tools are most suitable for creating a process and an interface. These tools contain:

a) Constructor of screen forms, allowing to develop formats of screen input,

output and editing of data, control the work of the PP.

b) Various control objects are used: signatures and message texts, fields for

information input, lists of choice of possible alternatives, buttons, switches.

8. Designing a graphical user interface.

Graphical interface- the main component of modern programs, the requirements for it are presented from the engineering, artistic and ergonomic aspects of development.

First of all, when creating, they are guided by human capabilities. The interface must be distinguished by the following requirements:

1. Maintain the technology of the user's work with the program (contain menus that are familiar and understandable to the user, arranged in a natural sequence of use).

2. Focus on the end user who interacts with the program at the external level.

3. Satisfy the rules of “six” (include no more than six concepts in one menu bar, each of which contains no more than six options).

4. Graphics retain their default assignments and screen layouts.

36.Top-down design method.

Top-down design method - allows you to sequentially decompose a common function, data processing into simple functional elements. As a result, a hierarchical diagram is built that displays the composition of functions and relationships. The purpose can be any related to information processing.

The sequence of actions when developing circuits:

1. The goals of automation of the subject area and their hierarchy are determined (goal, subgoal is determined).

2. The set of applications is established that ensure the implementation of the goals (program selection).

3. The nature of the relationship between applications and their main characteristics is clarified:

Information for solving problems; - time and frequency of the decision;

Application execution conditions.

4. The necessary data processing functions are determined for solving the assigned tasks.

5. Decomposition of processing functions is performed to the required structural complexity, implemented by the selected tool.

6. Highlighting commonly used processing functions for use as standard.

37.Modular programming.

Module - a logically interconnected set of functional elements, designed in the form of separate software modules. Module characteristics:

One output and one input - at the input, the module receives one set of initial data, performs meaningful processing and returns a set of result data.

Functional completeness - the module performs a list of operations for the implementation of functions in full, sufficient to complete the started processing.

Logical independence - the result of a module's work depends only on the initial data, and does not depend on the work of other modules.

Weak communication links with other modules. The exchange of information between modules should be minimized as much as possible.

Program elements of limited size and complexity.

Each module consists of:

Specifications - the rules for using the module.

The body is a way of realizing the processing process.

The principle of modular programming is similar to top-down design.

1) The composition and subordination of functions is determined;

2) a set of modules that implement functions is determined.

Functions of the same type are implemented by one module. Top-level functions are implemented by the main module, which controls the execution of lower-level functions. Subordinate modules correspond to them.

When defining modules, consider:

1) the module is called for execution by the parent module and, when finished, returns control to it;

2) major decisions are made to the highest possible level;

3) to use the same function, one module is created in different places of the algorithm.

As a result of the implementation, a functional-modular scheme of the application algorithm is created, which is the main one for programming.

For example, when creating a DBMS, separate modules can be:

1) screen form;

2) reports;

3) macros;

4) software modules; 5) processing procedures; 6) menu.

An algorithm of great complexity is represented using two types of schemes:

1) The generalized scheme of the algorithm shows the general principle of the algorithm and the main connections between the modules;

2) A detailed diagram of the algorithm shows the content of each element of the generalized diagram.

38. Structured programming.

Based on the modular structure of the software and typical control structures of data processing algorithms.

Typical control structures:

1) Sequence (a fixed list of blocks (operators), each block is processed after the completion of the previous one).

2) Alternative (selection condition). Contains a condition for selecting a processing alternative, each alternative is executed once.

3) Cycle. In the "conditions" block, the condition of the loop body is set, if it is not executed, the loop is interrupted and the "exit" is executed.

The unconditional jump operator is not used in structured programming.

39. Basic concepts of object-oriented design. Object Oriented Design is based on:

1) models for constructing a system as a collection of objects of an abstract data type.

2) modular structure of programs.

3) top-down design using object selection.

Basic concepts:

An object - a set of properties (parameters) of certain entities and methods of their processing (programs.). The object contains instructions (programs) that define actions that can be performed and processed data.

Properties - characteristic of an object, its parameter. Any object is endowed with properties that distinguish it from many other objects. Object properties are processed using a special method.

Method - a program of actions on an object or its properties, i.e. a method is always associated with a specific object and transforms the properties and behavior of the object.

Any object can have a certain set of processing methods created by the user or taken from standard libraries. These methods are executed when predetermined events occur. As objects evolve, standard processing methods and a fixed list of events are created.

Event - changing the state of an object. Events are divided into:

External events (user generated). -internal events (generated by the system).

Objects can be combined into classes.

Class - a collection of objects characterized by common processing methods or properties. One object can act as a union of other objects nested in it in the hierarchy.

The connections between classes and objects can be schematically represented in the form of a tree:

Object-oriented design uses the following notation when working with objects:

An object. Method

An object. Properties. Method

40.The principles and techniques of object-oriented design. Object approach principles:

1. Encapsulation(closure) - a combination of data structures with methods for their processing in abstract data types (object classes).

2. Inheritance- a mechanism that allows in a subclass derived from the original class to override or add new data and methods for their processing,

3. Polymorphism- the ability of an object to respond to a request according to its type, while the same method name can be used for different classes.

Features of OOP techniques:

1. An object is described as a model of some entity of the real world.

2. Objects are considered in interrelation, programs are created in relation to them.

In the OOP process:

1) identification of objects and their properties is carried out.

2) a list of processing methods performed on each object, depending on its state, is established.

3) the connections between the objects for the formation of the class are determined. 4) requirements for the interface with objects are established.

Allocated 4 stages of OOP:

1) Development of a class structure that describes the relationship between classes and objects.

2) Development of object diagrams showing relationships with other objects.

3) Development of the internal structure of the software.

4) Development of a hardware diagram of a data processing system, showing processors, external devices, computer networks and their connections.

41.Fundamentals of functional programming.

The first functional language (Lisp) was invented by Donald McCarthy to support language-specific list processing facilities. In the Lisp language, there are two types of data structures: atoms and lists, which allows abstracting from knowledge of the real structure of a computer.

The main purpose of this language is a more accurate imitation of mathematical functions. A pure functional language uses neither variables nor assignment operators. It contains a set of elementary functions, a set of functional forms for building complex functions from elementary ones, an operation for applying functions and a structure for representing data.

These languages ​​are often implemented using interpreters, but they can also be compiled.

A mathematical function is a mapping of elements of one set (domain of definition) to another set (sets of values). The display is described by an expression or a table. The function returns an element from a set of values ​​that has one single value.

Simple Functions - Function definitions are written as a function name, followed by a list of parameters in brackets and an expression specifying the display, Cube (x) = x * x * x. To calculate a simple function, a specific value is put instead of a parameter.

Higher-order functions are functions that take other functions as parameters or the results of their work.

1) Composition of functions - this function, the parameters of which are two functions. The result of the composition is the application of the function in the first parameter to the result of the function of the second parameter, "o" is the decomposition operator. H = f about g;

2) A construct is a functional form that receives a list of functions as parameters. It is indicated by enclosing the function in square brackets. (2).

3) Apply to all - a function that receives one function as parameters. It is denoted as α. α (f, (2,3,4)).

42.Basic concepts of the LISP language.

Types and data structure.

There are 2 types of data:

Atoms - symbols of the language, primary data;

A list is a set of atoms or sublists enclosed in brackets.

(ABCD) -list.

(A (BC) D (E (FG))) is a nested list.

Lists are stored as singly linked structures, each node of which has two pointers. The first pointer is an atom referencing its view, the second pointer is a link to the next item in the list. When Lisp was created, it was necessary to create a notation system that would allow one to express function and data in the same way. For this, they began to use the Polish notation.

(Function_name argument 1 ... argumentN)

An example of writing a new function: (defun cube (x) (* x x x); Elementary functions: + - * / eval - called to perform an action read, calculate, write.

Predicate functions: =% o „>,<, <=, >=

EVEN? - whether the number is even

ODD? - odd number

ZERO? - is it equal to zero

The lambda calculus is used to define an unnamed function. Lambda expressions are used to link functions.

Also, a universal function "EVAL" was introduced, capable of calculating any other function.

The flow control function COND is a multivariate branch operator.

(cond (predicate1 expr (expr))

(predicateT expr (expr))) Application of functional languages:

1) In text editors for processing lists (EMACS) - Lisp, scheme. 2) web-server ( www.lisp.com ).

43.Basics of logic programming.

LP is programming based on symbolic logic.

The basis of these languages ​​is formal logic using the concepts:

1) Saying - a logical statement, which can be true or false, and consists of objects and the relationship between them.

2) Symbolic logic - expression of statements, expression of the relationship between statements, description of the specifics of the conclusions of new statements.

The kind of symbolic logic used in logic programming is called predicate reckoning. Statements:

The simplest statements (atomic) consist of compound terms (an element of mathematical relations written in the form of mathematical functions). A compound term includes:

1) functor - a functional symbol that calls relations.

2) an ordered list of parameters.

Compound statements. They have several atomic statements linked by a logical operator.

Types of logical operators:

Predicate calculus - more focused on automatic theorem proving. The basis is a resolution (a rule of inference that allows calculating deduced statements based on given statements).

The process of determining the useful values ​​of variables is called unification. Temporarily assigning values ​​to variables is called instantiation.

Decomposition is an important property. This is the ability to detect any contradiction in a given set of statements.

Languages ​​for logical programming are called declarative and basically use declarative semantics - a way of defining the meaning of each operator, without specifying how to calculate the result.

44.Basic concepts of the Prolog language.

Thermes - constania, variable or structure.

Constants - atom or integer.

Variable - any string of letters, numbers, underscores starting with an uppercase letter.

Structure - atomic statement of predicate calculus.

Funigor(parameter list).

Facts - simple statements that are assumed to be true.

Rule - a form from which a value can be derived if a set of specified conditions are met.

Conjunction - in Prolog, the structures defining a conjunction statement are separated by commas.

Disjunction - is written (:-)

Target - a statement that the system must prove or disprove.

The structure of a Prolog program. constans

<описание констант>domains

<описание доменов>datebase<описание предикатов динам. БД>predicates

<описание предикатов>

<утверждения>goal

<целевое утверждение>

Satellite program example

domains planeta = symbol

predicates vrash ("Earth", "Sun") vrash ("JIyнa", "Earth") sputnik (x, y): - vrash (x, y) Application of logic programming: widely used to create expert systems, as well as support systems decision making.